This small study concerns occurrences of metaphor, metonymy and conceptual metaphor in the Old English poem Beowulf. The first 224 lines of Beowulf were searched for non-literal passages. Thefound passages were sorted into the groups conventionalized metaphor, metonymy and innovativemetaphor. The conceptual metaphors were in turn sorted into target domains and source domains and grouped within the domains. These were then compared to Modern English and Modern Swedish metaphors and conceptual metaphors with the help of dictionaries and corpus studies. Beowulf was also looked at as a small corpus. Words which were suspected to be used inmetaphorical senses were searched for in the full text and the results were examined and comparedwith modern language usage. It was found evident that Old English and Modern English, as well as Modern Swedish, have many conceptual metaphors in common both when in comes to experiential metaphors and culturally grounded metaphors.

The aim of this dissertation was to identify and describe lexical metaphors in popular science news (PSN) from lexicogrammatical elements. Based on Systemic- Functional Linguistics we worked with the concepts of lexical metaphor, grammatical metaphor and transitivity in order to analyze lexical metaphors in 30 PSN selected from the magazines BBC News International and Scientific American (Motta-Roth, 2007). Through transitivity we observed the structures specified by each process and the meanings which are typical to them. When these meanings are built in a nonliteral or non-congruent way we have a lexical metaphor which is caused by the semantic tension between the process and its participant(s). A lexical metaphor can be a metaphor when there is a relation of similarity between the terms; a metonymy when there is a contiguity relation between terms; and a personification when terms related to inanimate things are described as having human abilities or characteristics. From our analysis we found more occurrence of metaphor, followed by the occurrence of metonymy and personification. The metaphors showed varied semantic fields although the most common ones referred to war and engineering. The most common metonymies were the kind that studies, reports and results were named instead their researchers (research by researcher) and the kind that research institutions as well as health or government institutions were named instead their responsible members (institution by responsible), depersonalizing the subjects. Most of metonymy cases were at the same time classified as personifications in which mainly researches and institutions became agents which create and spread scientific knowledge and perform varied actions related to decisions in the scientific field. Thus, lexical metaphors were widely found in our corpus, mainly in dependent projected clauses. / O objetivo desta dissertação de mestrado foi identificar e descrever metáforas lexicais em notícias de popularização da ciência (PC) a partir dos elementos da léxico-gramática. Com base na Linguística Sistêmico-Funcional, trabalhamos os conceitos de metáfora lexical, metáfora gramatical e transitividade a fim de analisarmos as metáforas lexicais em 30 notícias de PC selecionadas nas revistas BBC News International e Scientific American (Motta-Roth, 2007). Pela transitividade, observamos as estruturas especificadas por cada processo e os sentidos que lhes são pertinentes. Quando esses sentidos são construídos de modo não literal ou não congruente, temos uma metáfora lexical, que é causada pela tensão semântica existente entre processo e seu(s) participante(s). A metáfora lexical pode se configurar como uma metáfora propriamente dita, quando há relação de semelhança entre termos; em metonímia, quando há relação de contiguidade entre termos; e em personificação, quando termos referentes a seres inanimados são descritos como possuidores de habilidades ou características humanas. A partir da nossa análise, verificamos maior ocorrência de metáfora, seguida da ocorrência de metonímia e de personificação. As metáforas apresentaram campos semânticos variados, embora os mais comuns foram referentes à guerra e à engenharia. As metonímias mais frequentes foram do tipo em que estudos, relatórios e resultados foram nomeados em detrimento de seus pesquisadores (pesquisa por pesquisador) e do tipo em que instituições de pesquisa, governamentais e relacionadas à saúde foram nomeadas em detrimento de seus responsáveis (instituição pelos responsáveis), causando a despersonalização dos sujeitos. A maioria dos casos de metonímias foram, concomitantemente, classificados como personificações em que, principalmente, pesquisas em geral e instituições tornaram-se agentes criadores e propagadores do conhecimento científico e de ações variadas relacionadas a decisões no campo da ciência. Assim, metáforas lexicais foram amplamente constatadas em nosso corpus, principalmente em orações dependentes projetadas.

[pt] A indústria de software vem ao longo dos anos aumentando a funcionalidade das aplicações, numa tentativa de satisfazer as necessidades do maior número de usuários possível. Esta solução, no entanto, implica grandes desafios de usabilidade, devido à complexidade cada vez maior destas aplicações. Uma tendência que visa a acomodar as necessidades dos usuários sem sobrecarregar o software com funcionalidade de uso infreqüente é permitir que os próprios usuários finais configurem ou programem as aplicações, através de mecanismos de extensão que suportam um tipo específico de programação, chamado programação feita por usuários finais. Entretanto, grande parte das técnicas existentes para tal não conseguem atingir níveis aceitáveis de utilidade e usabilidade. Este trabalho trata alguns desafios de aplicações extensíveis, propondo uma abordagem que rompe com algumas barreiras entre interface e extensão. Esta abordagem traz para a interface, e ao alcance dos usuários finais, mecanismos de extensão de software com base em recursos semântico-pragmáticos, utilizando cálculos de metáforas e metonímias. Estes mecanismos foram escolhidos devido ao reconhecimento das Ciências Cognitivas do papel que desempenham em nosso raciocínio, em especial quando tentamos descrever ou entender um conceito abstrato ou complexo (Lakoff e Johnson, 1980; Lakoff, 1987; Lakoff, 1993; Ortony, 1993). Descrevemos um modelo de aplicações extensíveis que utiliza uma base de conhecimento onde devem ser representados os elementos do domínio e da aplicação que podem ser estendidos, bem como as classificações necessárias aos mecanismos de extensão. Nosso modelo considera os aspectos comunicativos das aplicações computacionais. Para garantir a consistência entre a aplicação original e a aplicação estendida, seguimos princípios da Engenharia Semiótica (de Souza, 1993) e prevemos, no modelo, a representação de regras que restringem as extensões na interface, a fim de refletir adequadamente as extensões de funcionalidade. / [en] In the past few years, we have witnessed an increase in software functionality as an attempt to meet most users` needs. This approach brings about serious usability challenges, due to an increase in application complexity as well. In order to try and meet users` needs, without overloading the application with functionality that is rarely used, there is a tendency to allow end users to configure or program applications, by means of mechanisms that support the so-called end user programming. However, many existing techniques fail to attain acceptable thresholds of usefulness and usability. This work addresses some of the challenges posed by extensible applications. We follow an approach that drops some walls between interface and extension. This approach brings some extension mechanisms to the interface, and readily accessible to end- users, namely extensions based on the semantic-pragmatic resources of metaphors and metonymies. These mechanisms were chosen due to the acknowledgment of the Cognitive Sciences of their critical role in our reasoning processes, especially when we try to describe or understand complex or abstract concepts (Lakoff e Johnson, 1980; Lakoff, 1987; Lakoff, 1993; Ortony, 1993). We describe an extensible application model that makes use of a knowledge base in which we represent the domain and application elements that may be extended, as well as the necessary classifications for calculating the possible extensions. Our model takes into account the communicative aspects of computer applications, and follows Semiotic Engineering (de Souza, 1993) principles to guarantee the consistency between the original application and the extended one. For that purpose, our model entails the representation of rules that constrain interface amendments, so that extended functionality is adequately reflected at the resulting interface. / [es] La industria de software ha aumentado, a lo largo de los años, la funcionalidad de las aplicaciones, en un intento de satisfacer las necesidades del mayor número de usuarios posible. Esta solución, implica grandes desafíos de usabilidad, debido a la complejidad cada vez mayor de estas aplicaciones. Una tendencia que trata de acomodar las necesidades de los usuarios sin sobrecargar el software con funcionalidad de uso poco frecuente es permitir que los proprios usuarios finales configuren y programen las aplicaciones, a través de mecanismos de extensión que soportan un tipo específico de programación, llamado programación hecha por usuarios finales. Sin embargo, gran parte de las técnicas disponibles no consiguen alcanzar níveles aceptables de utilidad y usabilidad. Este trabajo trata algunos desafíos de aplicaciones extensibles, proponiendo un enfoque que rompe con algunas barreras entre interfaz y extensión. Este enfoque trae para la interfaz, y al alcance de los usuarios finales, mecanismos de extensión de software con base en recursos semántico-pragmáticos, utilizando cálculos de metáforas y metonímias. Estos mecanismos fueron escogidos debido al reconocimiento de las Ciencias Cognitivas del papel que desempeñan en nuestro raciocinio, en especial cuando tentamos describir o entender un concepto abstracto o complejo (Lakoff y Johnson, 1980; Lakoff, 1987; Lakoff, 1993; Ortony, 1993). Describimos un modelo de aplicaciones extensibles que utiliza una base de conocimiento donde deben ser representados los elementos del dominio y de la aplicación que pueden ser extendidos, bien como las clasificaciones necesarias a los mecanismos de extensión. Nuestro modelo considera los aspectos comunicativos de las aplicaciones computacionales. Para garantizar la consistencia entre la aplicación original y la aplicación extendida, seguimos los principios de la Ingeniería Semiótica (de Souza, 1993) y prevemos, en el modelo, la representación de reglas que limitan las extensiones en la interfaz, a fin de reflejar adecuadamente las extensiones de funcionalidad.

The Cremator: The Fetish as The Denial of Life and The Adoration of Death Summary The object of interest in the semiotic analysis of the literary work "The Cremator" by the Czech writer Ladislav Fuks are primarily the motifs of fetishism and the cult of death. This framework is examined in the relation to the specific "new" language of masochism and in the relation to the aphasic language disorder related to metonymy. The utterance of the main character Karl Kopfrkingel intermingles with the way he thinks and consequently acts, as he duplicates through his language a fictional world and obscures it with the fetishized descriptions adoring the death. In this case, the masochism is not manifested in a sexuality (as in the case with Masoch), but on the ethno-social level related to the personal myth crisis and the subsequent transformation of Kopfringel and the related environment of the fictional world. These aspects become to a murdering urges in the context of ethnic affiliation, which has become to an obstacle and the settlement with it demands the establishment of a new order. Keywords Ladislav Fuks, The Cremator, aphasia, metonymy, metaphor, fetishism, fiction worlds, identity, masochism, sadism

Selected fashion houses that exclusively offer luxurious goods use specific form of promotion of their products. Each house usually holds onto traditions of its country and features essential for its own brand while creating new collections. From the point of view of neo-rhetoric it would be appropriate to analyze visual advertisements of the houses (Chanel, Dolce & Gabbana, Burberry) if they create certain models via them. The main advertising campaigns for the spring/summer 2011 season were chosen for this comparison. Under the terms of observation and semiotic analysis of the fashion advertisement focused on rhetoric figures it can be proved that individual fashion houses aim their attention to how their potential customers' thinking is influenced by their advertising. The model of Roland Barthes is used for the analysis of chosen visual advertisements. Out of all rhetorical tropes the attention is paid to main four - visual metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche and irony. Fashion advertising meets unwritten norm that sets a target to convince the customer of suitability of the products for him.

The diploma work "The differences between perception of metonymy in photography and in movies from the perspective of reception aesthetics" deals with different uses of the figure of speech - metonymy - in visual communication. The metonymy is primarily used as an ornamental device of language expression. It is also distinguishable in purely visual information that is provided in photography and certain film shots. In visual communication, metonymy is also used for embellishing of the visual content or, at least, its correction. This work is focused especially on these examples of the use of metonymy that employ the method of reception aesthetics, which was up to now applied only to literary works. The subjects of interest of the reception aesthetics are so- called places of indeterminacy and the horizon of expectation which is also the focus of this work in addition to its main focus on metonymic expression in movies and photography. The first part of this work deals with the theory of the reception aesthetics and its main exponents. The second part deals with the relationship between the recipients and the media, specifically photography and movie. The last part of this work deals with the theory of rhetorical figures, particularly metonymy and its special form - synecdoche, and it's application...

[pt] Tomando como base a perspectiva teórica da Linguística Cognitiva, que interpreta o significado na língua em uso e entende metáfora e metonímia como fenômenos da linguagem cotidiana, esta pesquisa examina a metáfora e a metonímia no texto jurídico. O objetivo do estudo é investigar o uso da língua na produção textual jurídica da petição inicial a fim de avaliar em que medida a proposta de metáfora e metonímia conceptual e a metodologia de análise correspondente se sustentam. Para a investigação, selecionam-se dois segmentos de petições iniciais e analisam-se 200 unidades lexicais de conteúdo. Na análise, aplica-se, de forma adaptada, o Procedimento para Identificação de Metáforas da Universidade Livre de Amsterdã (MIPVU), para identificar e classificar metáforas e metonímias na língua em uso. Com o auxílio de dicionários, apresentamos os significados contextual e básico de cada unidade lexical e estabelecemos as relações construídas. Os resultados evidenciam a relevância do uso para a apreensão do significado, a necessidade de uma metodologia de análise mais abrangente e o predomínio de metáforas convencionais e indiretas, assim como de metonímias por nominalização, em detrimento de usos de caráter deliberado, o que se mostra coerente com a literatura da Linguística Cognitiva e com as especificidades na forma, no conteúdo e no estilo da petição inicial. / [en] Assuming the theoretical perspective of Cognitive Linguistics, which is concerned with meaning in the language in use and considers metaphor and metonymy as phenomena of everyday language, this research examines metaphor and metonymy in legal texts. The aim of this work is to investigate the use of language in the legal textual production of the initial petition to understand the extent to which the proposal of conceptual metaphor and metonymy and the corresponding analysis methodology apply. In the investigation, two segments of initial petitions are selected, and 200 lexical units of content are analyzed. In the analysis, an adaptation of the Metaphor Identification Procedure - Vrije Universiteit (MIPVU) is applied to identify and classify metaphors and metonymies in the texts. We refer to dictionaries to present the contextual and basic meanings of each lexical unit and then establish the relationships built. The results show the relevance of use for establishing meaning, the need for a more comprehensive analysis methodology, and the prevalence of conventional and indirect metaphors, as well as metonymies by nominalization rather than deliberate uses, which is consistent with the literature in Cognitive Linguistics and with the specifics in the form, content, and style of the initial petition.

Cognitive linguists posit that language as a system of meaning is closely related to cognition and to the associated perceptual and physiological structures of the body. From the cognitive semantic viewpoint, cognitive processes underpin and motivate linguistic phenomena such as categorisation, polysemy, metaphor, metonymy and image schemas. The pedagogical implication of the cognitive semantic perspective is that understanding these cognitive motivations facilitates language learning. This dissertation uses an applied cognitive semantic approach to `make sense' of a traditional knowledge system, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). TCM views human physiology as a holistic and dynamic system that exemplifies the same principles as the cosmos-environment. TCM models result in a categorisation of physiological phenomena based on a complex system of experiential and cosmological correspondences. I suggest that the holistic epistemology of cognitive linguistics is well suited to an understanding of these holistic models. From a pedagogical viewpoint, I argue that an analysis of the cognitive motivations which underpin TCM categorisations and the polysemy of some key TCM terms can help the student make sense of TCM as a meaningful system of thought and practice. Both the theoretical and applied approaches explored in this dissertation should have relevance to other traditional knowledge systems, particularly traditional medical systems. / Linguistics / M.A. (Linguistics)

Modern humour appears to initiate the deconstruction of modern correspondence thinking. A close examination shows the opposite, namely that modern humour forms part of correspondence thought in a complicated reciprocal relationship of disruption and support. Ironically, humour is particularly suited to explicating the deconstruction of correspondence thinking in poststructuralist language theories by being prone to refute cornerstone principles of modernism such as truth, rationality, reliability and permanence. This dissertation focuses on the exceptional suitability of humour to adapt to the loss of the centre and to demonstrate the shift from the modernist ontological approach to the postmodernist creative metaphorical approach to art. Humour, like metaphor, reinvents meaning rather than discovers it; it remains open-ended instead of offering closure. It becomes a valid creative option and enters a new dynamic into a postmodern culture of play where truth and meaning remain infinitely suspended in an ungrounded state of possibility. / Art History, Visual Arts & Music / M.A. (Visual Arts)

This is a study ofD.RZ. Ntuli's radio trilogy: Isivumelwano, IsivumelwanoEsisha and Ngenxa Yesivumelwano. Since the term trilogy is not a familiar concept in Zulu literary studies, this is an attempt to fill that void. This thesis provides some new insight into this concept, while also devising a practical method for the analysis of the radio trilogy. Chapter one outlines the aim of the study, scope of the study and the definition of some terms. This is followed by explaining the method of research and theories on radio serial dramas. There is also a discussion of the historical background in the development of Zulu radio serial drama and Ntuli's position and contribution to it. Finally, there is a review of previous research studies in Aincan Languages on radio drama. In chapter two plot structure of a radio trilogy is discussed. Theories of drama trilogy by trilogists like Hitchcock, Bakhtin, Asimov and Norris are discussed in detail. This is followed by an in-depth analysis of the plot structures of Isivumelwano, Jsivumelwano Esisha and Ngenxa Yesivumelwano. Chapter three deals with the characterization of radio trilogy. It distinguishes between the actors and characters. Different methods of character portrayal are investigated. Chapter four deals with perspectives on the theme of the radio trilogy. Types of themes are dealt with. Chapter five discusses the dialogue in radio trilogy. It deals with the differences between a dialogue, duologue and monologue, and explains the functions fulfilled by dramatic utterances and dialogue. Lastly a nature of dialogue as a characteristic of the dramatic action is discussed. Chapter six concentrates on the style of radio trilogy. Elements and different types of styles are discussed. Kinds of images, figurative language, proverbs, idioms, biblical allusions and various influences are discussed in detail. Chapter seven concludes by summarizing the main finding ofthis study, and giving observations about the quality ofNtuli's contribution to radio drama trilogy. lt also explores some possibilities regarding future studies on Ntuli's radio trilogy. / African Languages / D. Lit. et Phil. (African Languages)