O sistema linfoide é composto de órgãos linfoides primários e secundários. O timo é um órgão linfoide primário responsável pela maturação, diferenciação e seleção da linhagem linfocitária do tipo T que é responsavel pela imunidade celular do individuo. Para cumprir estas funções, o timo possui uma disposição peculiar das suas células epiteliais morfologicamente distintas e de suas estruturas vasculares. Seus vasos sanguíneos possuem um papel na oxigenação tecidual e no processo de migração das células precursoras de linfócitos T para o interior do parênquima tímico e por isso apresentam uma arquitetura típica caracterizada por vasos de grande calibre, localizados na junção cortico-medular e uma fina rede de ramos e anastomoses que se estendem para o córtex. Este processo de estruturação e arquitetura vascular ainda possui sua base molecular desconhecida, assim como os mecanismos que provocam a involução do órgão. O VEGF é um fator angiogênico que atua na formação vascular e na modulação de funções relacionadas à vascularização, sendo um importante marcador da angiogênese. A fim de se melhor compreender o comportamento vascular na formação e involução tímica, propôs-se avaliar a expressão gênica e proteica deste fator durante fases de desenvolvimento e involução do órgão, além da quantificação da vascularização do timo pela técnica estereológica, análise do parênquima tímico pela técnica de microscopia eletrônica de varredura e análise dos tipos celulares presentes em cada estágio etário. Para tal utilizou-se amostras de timo de gato em quatro estágios de desenvolvimento fetal (35, 45, 55, 65), e dois estágios pós-natal (6 meses e 1 ano) para a realização da imuno-histoquímica, PCR em tempo real e MEV,e para a técnica estereológica 2 estágios pós-natal (6 meses e 1 ano). Na microscopia eletrônica de varredura foram observados os timócitos de diferentes tamanhos, em estágios de maturação distintos. As proteinas do VEGF-A e dos receptores Fit-1 e KDR foram identificadas no timo de gatos em todas as fases do desenvolvimento foram localizadas no citoplasma de células epiteliais e no interior dos corpúsculos tímicos. A expressão do mRNA no período de 1 ano de idade a expressão do mRNA do VEGF e seus receptores tem um aumento significativo, coincidindo com a diminuição do Nvasc e do Nv(vasc) podendo causar um estado de hipóxia no órgão levando a um aumento compensatório de sistema VEGF. A curva de crescimento vascular obedece a um padrão de desenvolvimento e involuçãio do órgão. / The lymphoid system is composed by primary and secondary lymphoid organs. The thymus is a primary lymphoid organ responsible for maturation, differentiation and selection of the lymphoid T cell lineage that is responsible for cellular immunity. To accomplish these functions has a peculiar arrangement with morphologically distinct epithelial cells and vascular structures. The blood vessels have a role in tissue oxygentation and the migration of T cells into the thymic parenchyma, therefore they presents large vessels in cortico-medullary junction and a fine network branches to the cortex. This process has its molecular basis unknown as well as the involution process of the thymus. VEGF is an angiogenic factor that plays a role in the formation and modulation of vascular functions, being an important marker of angiogenesis. We proposed to evaluate the gene and protein of VEGF during the thymus development and involution, stereological quantification and scanning electronic microscopy. Samples of cat´s thymus from 35, 45, 55, 65 days of development and 6 months and 1 year of age. In scanning electronic microscopy different stages maturation thymocytes were observed. Protein expression of VEGF and its receptors were identified in all development stages in epithelial cells, endothelial cells and thymic corpuscles. The VEGF mRNA expression and its receptors in 1 year old animals was significantly increased, coinciding with the decreasing Nvasc and the Nv(vasc) causing a hypoxic condition in the thymus resulting in a compensatory increase of VEGF system. The vascular growth curve follows a pattern of development and involution of the organ.

Os mastócitos (MC) são células teciduais, ricas em mediadoras inflamatórias, envolvidos na resposta alérgica, com papel imunomodulador cada vez mais reconhecido. Células Dendríticas (DCs), por sua vez, são sabidamente necessárias para a resposta imune, sendo as células apresentadoras de antígenos mais eficientes, capazes de responder prontamente frente à sinais de perigo. Neste trabalho, demonstramos que o contanto celular de DCs com MCs (iDC-MC) induz a geração de DCs com imunofenotipo tolerogênico. As iDC-MC exibiram menor expressão de HLA-DR e maior expressão de PD-L1, assim, não foram capazes de manter uma proliferação alogeneica. Ainda, os linfócitos expostos as iDC-MC induziram maior expressão de FoxP3+, IL-10 e TGF-β, capazes de suprimir a proliferação de linfócitos T naïve estimulados com mitógeno. Além disso, o contato resultou na maior produção de IDO, fenômeno este, bloqueado quando MCs foram tratados com anti-PD-1 ou iDCs tratadas com PD-L1 ou PD-L2, mas a produção se manteve inalterada após o tratamento das iDCs com anti-histamínicos. / Mast cells (MC) are tissue resident cells, rich in inflammatory mediators, involved in allergic reactions, and with an increasingly recognized role in immunomodulation. Dendritic cells (DCs), on the other hand, are central to the determination of immune response patterns, being highly efficient antigen-presenting cells that respond promptly to changes in their microenvironment. Here, we show that direct cell contact between iDCs and MC bends DCs towards tolerance induction. These MC-exposed DCs decreased HLA-DR but increased PD-L1 expression and stimulated T lymphocytes to express FoxP3+, to secrete TGF-β and IL-10, and to suppress the proliferation of mitogen-stimulated naïve T lymphocytes. Furthermore, contact with MC induced DCs to express higher levels of indoleamine-2,3-deoxigenase (IDO), a phenomenon that was blocked by treatment of MC with anti-PD-1 or by the treatment of DCs with anti-PD-L1 or PD-L2, but not by blocking of H1 and H2 histamine receptors on DCs.

Assim como tecidos normais, tumores possuem uma demanda de nutrientes e oxigênio, suprida através da vasculatura a eles associada que resulta do processo de angiogênese. Fatores pró-angiogênicos são capazes de atrair monócitos, os quais se diferenciam em macrófagos associados a tumores (TAMs). TAMs comumente apresentam fenótipo M2, cujas características são consideradas pró-tumorais, como a promoção da angiogênese e a degradação de matriz extracelular. Estudos indicam que galectina-3 (gal-3), uma proteína pleiotrópica que se liga a ?-galactosídeos, participa do controle da angiogênese e da infiltração de macrófagos M2 na massa tumoral, mas pouco se sabe sobre os mecanismos envolvidos. No presente estudo, utilizamos um modelo de sarcoma induzido por carcinógeno em camundongos selvagens (WT) e knockout para gal-3 (Gal- 3 KO). Comparando os tumores de animais WT e Gal-3 KO, não observamos diferenças no padrão de crescimento tumoral, na área necrótica relativa, na proliferação celular e na quantificação de fibras de colágeno. Demonstramos que, embora ambos os grupos desenvolvam tumores, a angiogênese foi inibida em um microambiente desprovido de gal-3. Entretanto, não houve diferença na produção do fator de crescimento endotelial vascular (VEGF). As imagens obtidas in vivo indicaram que gal- 3 também influencia na formação estrutural de vasos adjacentes ao tumor. Além de mediar aspectos morfológicos relacionados à angiogênese, demonstramos que gal-3 também contribuiu para a funcionalidade vascular, pois houve uma redução na velocidade de fluxo sanguíneo nos vasos intratumorais de animais Gal-3 KO. Nossos dados sugeriram que há menos macrófagos no tumor que não expressa gal-3 e, dentre os TAMs, há mais M2 em comparação ao tumor gal-3-positivo. A análise do tecido onde o tumor se desenvolve, na fase inicial da tumorigênese, indicou que a ausência de gal-3 está relacionada a uma maior densidade de macrófagos M2. Considerando que a presença maior de macrófagos M2 nos sarcomas gal-3-negativos não resultou em maior produção de VEGF, mas sim na inibição da angiogênese, nossos resultados apontam para uma participação significativa de gal-3 na mediação da angiogênese pelos macrófagos / As well as normal tissues, tumors require nutrients and oxygen, which are supplied by the associated vasculature that results from the process of angiogenesis. Pro-angiogenic factors are able to attract monocytes and they differentiate into tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). TAMs commonly exhibit M2 phenotype, which has characteristics considered pro-tumoral, such as angiogenesis promotion and degradation of extracellular matrix. Studies show that galectin-3 (gal-3), a pleiotropic ?-galactosidebinding protein, participates in angiogenesis control and M2 macrophage infiltration into the tumor mass, but little is known about the mechanisms involved. In this work, we established a model of carcinogen-induced sarcoma in wild-type (WT) and gal-3 knockout (Gal-3 KO) mice. Comparing tumors from WT and Gal-3 KO animals, there were no differences in the pattern of tumor growth, relative necrotic area, cell proliferation and collagenous fibers. We demonstrated that, although both groups develop tumors, angiogenesis was inhibited in a microenvironment devoid of gal-3. However, there was no difference in the production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). The images obtained in vivo indicated that gal-3 also influenced the structural formation of vessels adjacent to the tumor. In addition to mediating morphological aspects related to angiogenesis, we demonstrated that gal-3 also contributes to vascular functionality, since there was a reduction in blood flow velocity in intratumoral vessels from Gal-3 KO animals. Our data suggested that there are fewer macrophages in tumors without gal-3 and, among TAMs, there are more M2 compared to gal-3-positive tumors. Analysis of the tissue where the tumor develops, in early stages of tumorigenesis, indicated that the lack of gal-3 is related to an increased density of M2 macrophages. Since the greater number of M2 macrophages in gal-3-negative fibrosarcomas did not result in increased VEGF production, but inhibited angiogenesis, our results suggest a significant role of gal-3 in regulation of angiogenesis by macrophages

Les carcinomes sont des cancers touchant plusieurs organes du corps humain, notamment les seins, le pancréas, les poumons, l'intestin… et sont issus de la transformation de cellules épithéliales en cellules tumorales. Au cours du développement d'une tumeur, les cellules cancéreuses, contrairement aux cellules normales, acquièrent la capacité de se déplacer dans le corps humain, jusqu'à coloniser des organes voisins. Ces colonies sont appelées métastases. Le processus métastatique est responsable de 90% des décès dans le cadre des carcinomes. Ce processus n'est pas dû à l'action isolée des cellules cancéreuses mais est aussi le résultat d'une coopération entre la tumeur et son voisinage – le microenvironnement tumoral – favorisant la survie et la migration des cellules cancéreuses. Les fibroblastes sont une population cellulaire du microenvironnement tumoral. Il a été démontré que les fibroblastes sont activés à proximité des cellules cancéreuses ; on les qualifie de fibroblastes associés au cancer ou CAFs. Dans des tissus de patients, les tumeurs les plus agressives corrèlent avec un enrichissement en fibroblastes et une matrice plus dense. Mon projet de thèse illustre un nouveau mécanisme de coopération entre CAFs et cellules cancéreuses. Cibler l’action des fibroblastes pourrait ralentir la progression tumorale, voire bloquer la formation de métastases. / Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are the most abundant cells of the tumor stroma. Their capacity to contract the matrix and induce invasion of cancer cells has been well-documented. However, it is not clear if CAFs remodel the matrix by other means (degradation, matrix deposition or stiffening). This project demonstrates that CAFs induce cancer cell invasion through assembly of FN into the matrix. CAFs assembled fibronectin (FN) mainly via integrin α5 but integrin αvβ3 was necessary for initial mechanosensing and fibrillar adhesion formation. In the absence of FN, contractility of the matrix by CAFs is preserved. When degradation is impaired, CAFs retain the capacity to induce invasion in a FN-dependent manner. In all cases, the levels of expression of integrin β3 and the amount of assembled FN was directly proportional to the invasion induced by fibroblast populations. Our results highlight FN assembly and integrin β3 as new hallmarks of CAFs. We also noticed that cancer cells migrate towards CAFs suggesting a possible chemotactic response. Using Dunn’s chemotaxis chamber, we found that cancer cells migrate along a gradient of CAF-conditioned media and a gradient of fibronectin. Finally, orthotopic injections of cancer cells and CAFs in the colon wall of mice revealed that CAFs stimulate metastasis of cancer cells to the liver. In conclusion, our data show that CAFs promote cancer cell invasion by depositing fibronectin that can guide cancer cells favoring metastasis formation.

The inability of the myocardium to regenerate after injury plus the inadequate number of available hearts for transplantation have drawn attention to the creation of functional tissue constructs for implantation within the injured heart. In addition, there is an increasing interest in developing in vitro models to study heart physiology and pathology as well as to evaluate drug efficacy. Formation of these in vitro models and tissue constructs requires highly specific conditions to mimic the normal environment of cells in the body. Firstly, in this study, plasma lithography patterning of elastomeric substrates is exploited for creating microtissues composed of neonatal cardiomyocytes, and investigating their development in different mechanical microenvironments. Immunofluorescence microscopy and force spectroscopy show that the size and shape of the cardiomyocyte clusters, as well as the sarcomere length, fiber alignment, and beating amplitude and frequency of the cardiomyocytes, are regulated by microenvironmental cues. Computational analysis reveals that the mechanical stress at the cluster-substrate interface strongly correlates with the aforementioned characteristics of the cardiomyocytes. Taken together, our results underscore a collective mechanoadaptation scheme in cardiac development. Secondly, a silicone substrate with tunable elasticity is characterized for biological studies. Uniaxial tensile testing and microindentation show that these substrates could cover the biological range of stiffness for normal and pathological conditions. Spectrophotometry demonstrates that the transmittance of these substrates is comparable to those of glass and Sylgard 184. Atomic force microscopy shows that the surface roughness of samples is lower than that of widely-used Sylgard 184. Contact angle measurements before and after exposure to air plasma indicate that these samples are compatible with plasma lithography patterning. Thirdly, a new technique for cell patterning is developed which utilizes selective plasma lithography to modify protein adhesion on the substrate. This approach is based on controlling the conformation of Pluronic F-127 layer adsorbed on the surface by modifying surface wettability. Contact angle measurements show that both PDMS and plastic petri dish are compatible with this technique. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy confirm the adsorption of PF-127 layers with controlled conformation. Fluorescent and bright-field microscopy demonstrate selective adhesion of proteins and attachment of cells merely on plasma-treated areas. Finally, micropillar arrays are employed to determine the effects of two proteins associated with regulation of thin filament length, i.e. Lmod2 and Tmod1, on contractile force generation at the cellular level. Our results demonstrate that the contractile force of single isolated Lmod2-KO cardiomyocytes decreases compared to the wildtype control. Transduction of Lmod2 in the knockout cardiomyocytes restores their contractile force to the level of their WT counterparts, verifying that the observed contractile dysfunction is specific to the loss of Lmod2. Our data demonstrate that overexpression of Tmod1 in cardiomyocytes decreases their contractile force compared to the WT cells and confirm the effects of Lmod2 knockout on contractile force generation.

L’hématopoïèse est le processus de formation des cellules souches hématopoïétiques (CSH); elle est conservée au cours d’évolution. Durant l’hématopoïèse embryonnaire, deux vagues hématopoïétiques se succèdent, la vague primitive et la vague définitive. La vague primitive produit des macrophages, des neutrophiles et des érythrocytes. Au cours de la vague définitive, les CSH émergent du plancher de l’aorte dorsale par une transition endothélio-hématopoïétique ou TEH, dans une région appelée aorte-gonades-mesonephros (AGM).Ces dernières années, des études des organes hématopoïétiques chez les mammifères ont démontré que le microenvironnement joue un rôle crucial dans l’émergence et le devenir des CSH. Pendant ma thèse, je me suis intéressée au rôle du microenvironnement dans la mise en place de l’hématopoïèse définitive chez l’embryon de zebrafish. Dans l’AGM, j’ai caractérisé et évalué la contribution de différents acteurs dont deux populations en particulier, les macrophages et le système neuronal sympathique. Chacune de ces cellules joue un rôle spécifique durant la vague définitive de l’hématopoïèse. Les macrophages mobilisent des CSH de l’AGM afin de permettre leur intravasation et la colonisation des organes hématopoïétiques. Les catécholamines synthétisées par le système neuronal sympathique quant à elles contrôlent la TEH par l’activation des récepteurs beta2b et beta3 dans l’AGM.En conclusion, nous avons démontré que le microenvironnement influence l’hématopoïèse définitive chez le zebrafish par différents mécanismes. Ces travaux ont pour objectif d’améliorer la compréhension du mécanisme de genèse des CSH et potentiellement de permettre un jour la production de CSH in vitro. / Haematopoiesis is the process of haematopoietic stem cell (HSC) generation conserved in all vertebrates. During the embryonic development, two successive waves of haematopoiesis occur – the primitive and the definitive wave. The first one gives rise to erythrocytes, macrophages and neutrophils. During the second one, HSCs emerge from the ventral wall of dorsal aorta (DA) in the aorta-gonads-mesonephros (AGM) region by a process called endothelial-to-haematopoietic transition or EHT.In the last years, several studies performed in mammals have shown that the microenvironment plays a key role in haematopoiesis. During my thesis I have studied the role of the microenvironment in definitive haematopoiesis in the zebrafish embryo. I have described several cell components present in the AGM and evaluated their contribution to the haematopoiesis. I further analysed two of those players: macrophages and sympathetic nervous system. Each of them plays a specific role during the definitive wave of haematopoiesis. Macrophages mobilise nascent HSCs from the AGM to allow their intravasation and colonisation of haematopoietic organs. Catecholamines synthetized by sympathetic nervous system control EHT through the activation of beta2b and beta3 receptors in the AGM.In conclusion, we have shown that the microenvironment can substantially influence the definitive haematopoiesis in the zebrafish by distinct mechanisms. These findings would help to understand the mechanism of HSC generation and potentially to allow in vitro HSC production.

Les cancers de l’ovaire représentent la première cause de mortalité due aux cancers gynécologiques dans les pays développés. La plupart de ces cancers sont diagnostiqués à des stades tardifs quand les cellules cancéreuses ovariennes ont disséminé et colonisé les parois de la cavité abdominale. En conséquence, ces cancers sont associés à un sombre pronostic.Plus d’un tiers des patientes présentent une accumulation de liquide d’ascite au moment du diagnostic. L’ascite est un fluide exsudatif ayant une composante cellulaire et également une composante liquide acellulaire, constituant un réservoir dynamique de molécules bioactives. Malgré une réponse efficace aux traitements standards, les taux de récidive de cette pathologie restent élevés. L’acquisition d’une chimiorésistance et le mode de propagation atypique des cellules cancéreuses sont deux éléments importants impliqués dans la récidive des cancers ovariens.Le rôle de l’ascite et plus particulièrement de la composante matricielle ascitique, dans le processus de dissémination et dans la chimiorésistance des cellules cancéreuses ovariennes reste peu étudié et constitue le cœur de ce travail de thèse.L’objectif des travaux a été d’étudier l’influence de l’ascite et de deux glycoprotéines matricielles purifiées à partir d’échantillons d’ascites sur les comportements cellulaires propices à la dissémination et à la récidive des cancers ovariens. De plus, l’influence de l’ascite sur la réponse des cellules aux traitements à base de platine a également été recherchée et estimée.L’étude démontre que l’ascite est un microenvironnement propice à la dissémination des cellules cancéreuses ovariennes et que la fibronectine et la vitronectine ascitiques ainsi que leurs récepteurs d’adhérence spécifiques sont des éléments qui participent à la régulation de cette dissémination. L’ascite exerce également un effet protecteur contre l’effet cytotoxique des agents chimiothérapeutiques.Ces résultats mettent en perspectives l’intérêt potentiel de la fibronectine et de la vitronectine ascitiques comme outils diagnostiques et/ou cibles thérapeutiques des cancers ovariens et nous engagent à approfondir l’étude de ces deux molécules et de leurs conséquences sur la progression de la maladie. / Ovarian cancers are the leading cause of death among gynaecological cancers in western countries. Most of these cancers are diagnosed at a late stage, when ovarian cancer cells have spread and colonized the walls of the abdominal cavity. Therefore, these cancers are associated to a poor prognosis.More than one third of the patients show an accumulation of ascites at the time of the diagnosis. Ascites are exudative fluids composed of a cellular and also an acellular fraction. In fact, ascites constitute a dynamic reservoir of bioactive molecules. Even if the response of ovarian cancers to the current first-line therapy, that consit in debulking surgery followed by chemotherapy, is satisfactory, the rate of recurrence remains important. The gain of a chemoresistance and the atypical widespread of cancer cells are two important factors involved in the recurence of the ovarian cancers.The role of ascites and more particularly, of the ascitic matrix componants on the dissemination process and on the chemoresitance of the ovarian cancer cells remain poorly studied and is the aim of this work.The objective of this study was to investiguate the influence of ascites and of two matrix glycoproteins purified from samples of ascites i) on the cells behavior convenient to the dissemination and the recurrence of the ovarian cancers and ii) on the response of cells to therapeutics treatments with platinum.This study suggests that ascites are a permissive microenvironment to the dissemination of ovarian cancer cells and that ascitic fibronectin and vitronectin as well as their specific receptors are actors which participate to the regulation of this dissemination. Ascites also protect ovarian cancer cells against the cytotoxicity of chemotherapeutic drugs.These results illustrate the potential interest of ascites derived fibronectin and vitronectin as diagnosis tools and/or therapeutic targets for ovarian cancers and encourage us to deepen the study of these two molecules and their consequences in the progress of the disease.

Il existe de nombreuses similarités entre le développement du foetus et celui des cellules tumorales. En effet, dans les deux cas ils requièrent une division cellulaire intense, une invasion des tissues de l’hôte ainsi qu’une vascularisation soutenue. De plus, malgré le fait que le foetus et les cellules tumorales expriment à la fois des antigènes étrangers (les antigènes paternels pour le foetus et les antigènes du soi modifiés au niveau des cellules tumorales) ils ne sont pas rejetés par le système immunitaire. Parmi plusieurs populations cellulaires impliquées dans ce phénomène de non rejet ou de tolérance, les cellules T régulatrices (Tregs) jouent un rôle primordial dans les deux processus. En effet, notre laboratoire a démontré que l’émergence des cellules tumorales ainsi que l’implantation fœtale s’accompagnent d’une activation forte et rapide des Tregs. Cette observation prend tout son sens quand l’élimination de ces Tregs a conduit à un rejet immunitaire de la tumeur ou du foetus. Afin de valider ces observations, nous avons mis au point une étude transcriptomique comparative entre le microenvironnement tumoral et l’interface foeto-maternelle. Cela a révélé une forte similarité et une importante diminution des voies de signalisation immunologiques associées à la présentation antigénique et à l’activation des cellules T. De plus, des analyses non supervisées ont mis en évidence une coévolution des signatures immunitaires inhibées et cela dés les premiers jours suivant l’implantation des tumeurs ou du foetus. Par ailleurs, l’élimination des Tregs (qui a conduit un rejet de la tumeur ou du foetus) a permis de faire basculer les mêmes signatures immunitaires d’un état d’inhibition à un état d’activation. En définitive, nous pensons que les mécanismes déployés au cours de l’évolution pour protéger les foetus du rejet immunitaire sont détournés afin de favoriser le développement des cellules tumorales. / There are striking similarities between fetus and tumor development. They both require intense cell division, invasion of host tissues and sustained vascularization. Moreover, despite that fetus and tumor express foreign antigens - paternal allo-antigens for fetuses and modified auto-antigens for tumors, they are not rejected by the immune system. Among others, regulatory T cells (Tregs), which are key players in tolerance, appear to play a significant role in both processes. We showed that tumor emergence as well as embryo implantation elicit a strikingly similar brisk Treg response, which functional relevance is supported by the fact that and Treg depletion leads to fetus or tumor immune rejection. Comparison of fetal and tumor microenvironments through transcriptomics revealed strikingly similar and dramatic decrease in expression of multiple immune-related pathways, including antigen presentation and T cell response. Unsupervised analyses highlighted the co-evolution in time of downregulated immune signatures, from the very first days after tumor or embryo implantation. Treg depletion, which leads to fetus or tumor rejection, converted the very same down-modulated immune signatures to up-regulated ones. We propose that means selected during evolution to protect mammalian fetuses are hijacked to license tumor development.

Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration is associated with low back pain (LBP). It has been suggested that changes in the IVD physio-chemical microenvironment (i.e. hypoxia, reduced nutrient and acidic conditions) may lead to disc degeneration. Studying the response of human nucleus pulposus (NP) cells to these conditions could establish the causal relationship between IVD microenvironment and aberrant cellular behaviour, characteristic of disc degeneration. Human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) are a promising cell population for disc regeneration. However, knowledge of their survival and functioning in the microenvironment of the IVD is still lacking. Moreover, in vitro co-culture model studies that are used to study MSC/disc cell interaction, also need to consider the effect of the microenvironment on cellular responses. BM-MSCs and degenerate NP cells were cultured alone or co-cultured in monolayer under hypoxia (2%O2), reduced nutritional (2% serum or/and 5mM glucose) and acidic (moderate pH 6.8 or severe pH 6.5) conditions alone or in combination for 7 days. Cell viability, proliferation, gene and protein expression was assessed. Degenerate NP cells and BM-MSCs maintained good cell viability under all conditions. Both cell types demonstrated overall similar proliferation and gene and protein responses under the majority of the conditions and combinations studied. Hypoxia promoted aggrecan and versican matrix biosynthesis in both cell types. Nutrient deprived and moderate acidic conditions (pH 6.8) inhibited proliferation of both cell types. Interestingly the combination of hypoxia with these conditions showed a protective effect in modulating cell proliferation. These results imply that hypoxia may be beneficial in some instances. Nutrient deprived conditions had a relatively minor effect on degenerate NP cell gene and protein expression but these conditions specifically inhibited VCAN expression in BM-MSCs. The combination of hypoxia with these conditions increased or restored VCAN expression. Interestingly the combination of hypoxia with reduced glucose conditions increased aggrecan and versican matrix biosynthesis in both NP cells and BM-MSCs. The combination of hypoxia and complete nutrient deprived conditions (both reduced serum and reduced glucose) impaired ACAN, VCAN and PAX-1 gene and aggrecan and versican protein expression in degenerate NP cells implicating disc hypoxia and complete nutrient deprived combined microenvironment in accelerating degenerate changes in NP cells. In contrast, these conditions showed no such detrimental effects on BM-MSC gene and protein expression. pH 6.5 was critical for both cell types proliferation and ACAN and VCAN gene expression suggesting that severe acidic conditions may exacerbate degenerative changes and be inhibitory for implanted MSCs. Finally, a combination of hypoxia, complete nutrient deprived and moderate acidic conditions, reduced cell proliferation without affecting the gene expression profile of both cell types. IVD-like physio-chemical microenvironmental conditions also appeared to influence differentiation of BM-MSC and modulation of degenerate NP cell phenotype observed during co-culture. Noticeably hypoxia, reduced serum or reduced glucose conditions stimulated BM-MSC differentiation and modulation of degenerate NP cell phenotype. Hypoxia also increased or recovered changes at gene expression level in both BM-MSCs and degenerate NP cells under nutrient deprived (reduced serum or/and reduced glucose) conditions during co-culture. Degenerate NP cell and BM-MSC co-culture also showed noticeable increase in aggrecan and versican biosynthesis under hypoxia and reduced glucose combine conditions, implicating these in improving the co-culture responses. Severe pH condition alone, pH 6.8 in combination with hypoxia and finally all IVD-like physio-chemical conditions together compromised co-culture responses. Such results imply that IVD-like physio-chemical microenvironmental conditions may influence MSC based regenerative outcomes. This work has increased our understanding about the influence of disc harsh microenvironment on degeneration and regeneration processes.

Les polynucléaires neutrophiles ont longtemps été considérés comme des cellules n’intervenant que dans la réponse immune innée. Cependant, au cours de ces dernières années, de nombreuses publications suggèrent que ces cellules, retrouvées au sein du microenvironnement de nombreux cancers, pourraient également jouer un rôle dans la tumorigénèse et la progression tumorale. Ces études mettent en évidence leur fréquence comme marqueur pronostique dans différents cancers solides, mais peu de travaux se sont intéressés à la caractérisation fonctionnelle de ces cellules dans la progression tumorale. Dans de nombreux cancers dont les lymphomes B issus du centre germinatif, les cellules tumorales, qui sont incapables de proliférer et de survivre seules, sont dépendantes de leur microenvironnement de soutien. Dans cette étude, nous avons évalué la fonctionnalité des polynucléaires neutrophiles dans la croissance des lymphomes B. Ainsi, nous avons démontré pour la première fois que les polynucléaires neutrophiles soutiennent directement la croissance et la survie des cellules tumorales de lymphomes B. De plus, un dialogue bidirectionnel existe entre les polynucléaires neutrophiles et les cellules stromales. D’une part, les cellules stromales soutiennent la survie des polynucléaires neutrophiles, qui en retour induisent les caractéristiques d’un stroma lymphoïde. L’induction de ce phénotype permet aux cellules stromales d’acquérir de meilleures capacités de soutien envers les cellules tumorales. Cette étude confirme donc que les polynucléaires neutrophiles sont une composante importante du microenvironnement tumoral, et pourraient devenir une nouvelle cible thérapeutique pour le traitement des lymphomes B issus du centre germinatif. / For long time, neutrophils have only been considered as cells involved in the innate immune response. More recently, in descriptive publications, neutrophils were found in the microenvironment of many solid cancers, hypothesizing that they could also play a role in tumorigenesis and cancer progression. These studies highlighted the prognostic value of their frequency, but few of them focused on the functional characterization of these cells in tumor growth. In many cancers, including germinal centre-derived B-cell lymphomas, tumor cells are dependent on their microenvironment to proliferate and survive. In this study, we focused on the role of neutrophils in the progression of B-cell lymphomas, and for the first time we demonstrated that neutrophils directly support the growth and survival of tumor Bcells. In addition, we highlighted the existence of bidirectional cooperation between neutrophils and stromal cells. In one hand stromal cells support the survival of neutrophils. On the other hand, neutrophils induce a lymphoid stroma phenotype which is well known to enhance their supportive effect on tumor cells. This study demonstrates that neutrophils are a significant component of the tumor microenvironment and may be considered as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of B-cell lymphomas.