Leishmania et Trypanosoma brucei sont des protozoaires parasites responsables de graves parasitoses de distribution mondiale. Aucun vaccin n'est disponible contre ces maladies dont le traitement reste basé sur un nombre limité de médicaments coûteux, souvent toxiques et peu efficaces, problème auquel s'ajoute celui des chimiorésistances. D'où l'urgente nécessité de trouver de nouvelles cibles pour le développement de nouveaux traitements qui soient à la fois efficaces, non ou moins toxiques et à un coût plus accessible. Les Trypanosomatidés, dont les génomes ont été entièrement séquencés, présentent de nombreuses originalités dans leur biologie cellulaire et moléculaire, par exemple un ADN mitochondrial unique et extrêmement complexe appelé kinétoplaste. Leur développement suit également un "double" cycle cellulaire répliquant, d'une part, classiquement le noyau et, d'autre part, l'ensemble "corps basal-ADN mitochondrial" dont la ségrégation correcte conditionne la cytodiérèse. Ils possèdent par ailleurs deux types de protéasomes, un classique (26S) et un de type procaryote, plus spécifique et absent chez l'homme, le complexe HslVU. Nous avons montré que HslVU est localisé exclusivement dans l'unique mitochondrie des parasites, et qu'il est, chez T. brucei, essentiel pour la survie de ces organismes. En effet, son inhibition par ARN interférence entraine un blocage de la cytodiérèse suivi par une mort cellulaire. Le premier objectif de cette thèse a été de tenter de mieux comprendre le rôle de HslVU dans le cycle cellulaire associé au kinétoplaste chez ces parasites possédant déjà un protéasome classique. Mettant un terme à plusieurs publications contradictoires, nous avons confirmé la localisation mitochondriale de ce complexe chez Leishmania et chez T. brucei. Nous montrons pour la première fois qu'il est tout aussi essentiel dans les formes sanguines, celles présentes chez l'hôte mammifère, que dans les formes procycliques. Nous montrons aussi un rôle différencié des différentes sous-unités du complexe dans le déroulement du cycle cellulaire associé au kinétoplaste. Le deuxième objectif de cette thèse a été d'identifier de nouvelles protéines mitochondriales régulatrices du cycle cellulaire associé au kinétoplaste. Pour ce faire, nous avons développé une approche de criblage par ARN interférence "semi-systématique" sur 104 protéines mitochondriales, principalement de fonction inconnue. Si l'inhibition de l'expression de la majorité de ces protéines (62) n'a aucun effet sur la croissance cellulaire, celle des 42 restantes induit une baisse moyenne ou sévère de cette croissance. De façon surprenante, cette inhibition modifie significativement et avec plus ou moins d'ampleur le déroulement du cycle cellulaire, suggérant qu'il est dépendant de multiples fonctions cellulaires. Finalement, ce travail valide le protéasome HslVU comme une cible thérapeutique pertinente tout particulièrement à l'adresse des formes sanguines de T. brucei. La différenciation fonctionnelle de HslU1 et HslU2 et l'activité indépendante de HslV donnent une image plus complexe sur le fonctionnement de ce protéasome. Les données d'ARN interférence pour leur part nous orientent vers une régulation du cycle cellulaire très intégrée à l'ensemble des activités cellulaires. / Leishmania and Trypanosoma brucei are protozoan parasites responsible for worldwide distributed severe diseases. No vaccine is available and the treatment relies upon a limited number of drugs, which are costly, often toxic and not highly efficient, and for which resistances are increasing. Hence the necessity to urgently discover novel drug targets with the aim of developing new drug treatments which would be more efficient, less toxic and if possible cheaper.Trypanosomatids, of which the genome has been entirely sequenced, exhibit numerous peculiarities in their cell and molecular biology, for example a single and complex mitochondrial DNA network termed kinetoplast. Also, their development follows a ‘double' cell cycle ensuring the replication of, on the one hand, the nucleus (classical mitosis) and on the other hand, the “basal body-kinetoplast” whole, of which the correct segregation conditions cytokinesis. They also possess tow types of proteasomes, one classical one (26S) and one of the prokaryotic type, more specific and absent in human, the HslVU complex. We have shown that HslVU is located exclusively in the single mitochondrion of these parasites and, in T. brucei, that it is essential to parasite's survival. Indeed, its RNAinterference-based knockdown leads to a cytokinesis block followed par cell death. The first aim of this work was to try to better understand the role of HslVU in the ‘kinetoplast-associated' cell cycle in these parasites that already possess a classical proteasome. Putting an end to several contradictory publications, we confirmed the mitochondrial location of this complex in Leishmania and T. brucei. For the first time, we also demonstrate that it is just as essential in bloodstream forms (those present in the mammalian host) than in procyclic forms. We finally show a differentiated role for the different subunits of the complex in the progress of the kinetoplast-associated cell cycle.The second aim of this work was to identify novel mitochondrial proteins which would participate in the regulation of the kinetoplast-associated cell cycle. To do this, we developed a ‘semi-systematic' screening approach using RNA interference for 104 mitochondrial proteins, most of them being of unknown function. If the inhibition of most of these proteins (64) had no effect on cell growth, that of the 42 remaining ones induced a moderate or severe growth defect. Surprisingly, this inhibition yielded significant and more or less visible modifications of the cell cycle progress, suggesting that the latter is dependent upon multiple cell functions.Finally, this study validates the HslVU proteasome as a pertinent drug target, particularly for the bloodstream forms of T. brucei. The functional differentiation of HslU1 and HslU2 and the independent activity of HslV are intriguing and give a complex picture of the functioning of this proteasome. On the other hand, the RNA interference data suggest a cell cycle regulation which would be highly integrated to the whole of the cell activities.

Aspergillus fumigatus é um fungo oportunista, sendo uma importante causa de morbidade e mortalidade entre os pacientes imunossuprimidos, acometidos com aspergilose invasiva. O sistema de defesa antioxidante do fungo atua como fator primordial de sua patogenicidade, mitigando os efeitos deletérios de espécies reativas produzidas pelo hospedeiro. Este trabalho teve o objetivo de avaliar o nível de transcrição relativo dos genes associados às proteínas mitocondriais e antioxidantes na presença de diferentes agentes pró-oxidantes para hifas e germinantes de cepas controle (CEA17) e nocaute para oxidase alternativa (?aoxA) de A. fumigatus. Utilizando qPCR, foram analisados 23 genes para as cepas CEA17 e mutante, dentre os quais, 5 associados à cadeia de transporte de elétrons (CTE), 4 relacionados aos componentes alternativos mitocondriais e 14 associados às proteínas antioxidantes. Os resultados foram obtidos através da normalização com o gene constitutivo gapdh utilizando a cepa CEA17 sem tratamento de cada fase de desenvolvimento celular como calibrador. As diferenças de transcrição da maioria dos genes estudados variaram com o pró-oxidante utilizado e com a fase de desenvolvimento celular (germinantes e hifas). A CTE em germinantes apresentou maiores níveis de transcritos dos complexos II e III em CEA17 do que em ?aoxA tratadas com menadiona. Com os demais complexos e atpase não foram observadas diferenças significativas quando comparados os resultados de ambas as cepas. Entretanto, os níveis de transcritos de atpase não foram superiores ao controle em nenhuma das cepas, sugerindo sua regulação na presença de ucp. ucp-like teve seus níveis de transcritos aumentados no mutante, sugerindo o desacoplamento da CTE em relação ao controle e à CEA17, que apresentou alto nível de transcritos de nde. Nesta cepa, os níveis de aoxA e ucp não foram significativamente diferentes. Esse fato, associado a níveis menores de ndiA e transcritos dos complexos I e II, sugerem manutenção do fluxo de elétrons na mitocôndria. Em relação às enzimas antioxidantes, houve aumento significativo nos níveis de cat2, catA, prx1, trx1 e grx1, indicando provável resposta à ausência de AOX. Os transcritos relacionados à CTE em hifas não apresentou diferença significativa nos níveis de complexo III e atpase em CEA17 e ?aoxA. No entanto, complexo IV se mostrou superior no mutante. Nesta fase de desenvolvimento, o aumento dos níveis de ucp-like está relacionado ao tratamento com menadiona e não com a presença de aoxA, explicando os mesmos níveis de transcritos em CEA17 e ?aoxA. Os níveis de nde sugerem atividade coordenada de sua proteína com AOX, por seus níveis estarem modulados pela presença de aoxA. A participação da Nde e da AOX na detoxificação das espécies reativas de oxigênio é sugerida ao se obter altos níveis de seus transcritos em hifas tratadas com menadiona. Diferentemente de germinantes, transcritos de sod3 foram predominantes em hifas de CEA17, enquanto transcritos de sod2 foram maiores em ?aoxA. Entre as catalases, os níveis de catA foram maiores no mutante, bem como a atividade das catalases como um todo. prx1 e trx1 foram maiores em CEA17 e ii grx1 em ?aoxA. Porém, trx1 atingiu os mais altos níveis de transcritos em germinantes, indicando possível redução de proteínas tiólicas e ribonucleotídeos por diferentes vias, de acordo com a fase de desenvolvimento do fungo. As enzimas antioxidantes clássicas, como superóxido dismutase, catalase e enzimas tiólicas, apresentaram aumento de transcrição na maioria das condições estudadas. No entanto, menadiona e paraquat promoveram maiores variações nos transcritos do que o observado com peróxido de hidrogênio gerado pelo sistema glicose/glicose oxidase. / Aspergillus fumigatus is an opportunistic fungus which has been referred to as a major cause of morbidity and mortality in imunosupressed patients affected with invasive aspergillosis. The antioxidant defense system of the fungus plays an important role in its pathogenicity by overcoming the negative effects of the oxygen reactive species produced by host. This work aims evaluating the transcription of genes associated to mitochondrial and antioxidant proteins in the presence of different prooxidants for hyphae and germinants of control (CEA17) and alternative oxidase knockout (?aoxA) strains. Using qPCR, 23 genes have been analyzed, 5 of which are electron transport chain (ETC), 4 are related to alternative components of the mitochondria, and 14 are associated to antioxidant proteins. The results were obtained via normalization with the constitutive gene gapdh using untreated CEA17 strain in each developmental phase as calibrator. The differences in the transcription of most analyzed genes varied with the prooxidant and the developmental phase (germinants and hyphae). The ETC in germinants presented higher amounts of transcripts of the complex II and III in CEA17 than in ?aoxA treated with menadione. With other complexes and the atpase no significant difference has been noted between both strains. However, the transcript levels of ATP synthase were not higher than control in any strain, which is related to its regulation in the presence of UCP. UCP-like had increased transcription in mutant, suggesting uncoupling from the ETC, relative to control and CEA17, which showed high levels of nde. In this strain, aoxA and ucp-like transcripts were not significantly different. This fact associated the lower levels of ndiA and transcripts of the complexes I and II suggest the maintenance of the electron flow in the mitochondria. Concerning the antioxidant enzymes, there was significant increase in the transcript production of cat2, catA, prx1, Ttrx1 and Ggrx1, suggesting a response to the absence of AOX. The ETC transcripts in hyphae did not present significant difference in the levels of complex III and atpase in CEA17 and ?aoxA. Yet the complex IV has shown higher in mutant than in CEA17. In this developmental phase, the increase of ucp-like is related to the treatment with menadione and not with the presence of aoxA, what explains the equivalent amount of transcripts in CEA17 and ?aoxA. The levels of nde suggest coordinated action of the protein with AOX, because it is modulated by the presence of aoxA. The role of Nde and AOX in the detoxification of reactive oxygen species is suggested by their high levels of transcripts in hyphae treated with menadione. Different from germinants, transcripts of sod3 was predominant in CEA17 hyphae, whereas transcripts of sod2 were higher for ?aoxA. Among catalases, levels of catA were higher in mutant, as was the activity of catalase as a whole. prx1 and trx1 transcripts were higher in CEA17 and grx1 in ?aoxA. Yet, trx1 reached the highest levels of transcripts in germinants, indicating a possible reduction of thiol proteins and ribonucleotides through different ways, according to the developmental phase of the fungus. The classical antioxidant enzymes, as superoxide dismutase, catalase and thiol enzymes showed increase in the transcripts in most of the analyzed situations. iv However, menadione and paraquat promoted higher variation in the transcripts than that observed with hydrogen peroxide generated by the system glucose/glucose oxidase.

Ο ρόλος του χαλκού είναι πολύ σημαντικός για τη σωστή λειτουργία της κυτοχρωμικής c οξειδάσης (CcO), και συνεπώς για την κυτταρική αναπνοή στους ευκαρυωτικούς και προκαρυωτικούς οργανισμούς. Η συγκρότηση της CcO στον ενδομεμβρανικό μιτοχονδριακό χώρο είναι μια πολύπλοκη διαδικασία, εξαρτώμενη από πλήθος συνεργών πρωτεϊνών, υπεύθυνων για τη λειτουργική αναδίπλωση των υπομονάδων του ενζύμου και τη μεταφορά αίμης και ιόντων Cu σε αυτές. Ενώ οι πρωτεΐνες που ενέχονται στη διαδικασία είναι μάλλον γνωστές, οι μηχανισμοί μεταφοράς και ενσωμάτωσης των μεταλλικών ιόντων στα δυο ενεργά κέντρα της CcO, CuA και CuB, παραμένουν ανεξερεύνητοι. Το CuA κέντρο είναι ένα διπυρηνικό κέντρο χαλκού, του οποίου ο ρόλος εντοπίζεται στη μεταφορά e- από το κυτόχρωμα c στο καταλυτικό κέντρο CuB της CcO. Η σωστή συγκρότηση του CuA κέντρου είναι κρίσιμης σημασίας για την καταλυτική δράση του ενζύμου. Αρκετές πρωτεΐνες έχουν χαρακτηριστεί σαν ενεργοί παράγοντες στη μεταφορά ιόντων Cu στο CuA κέντρο, ο ακριβής, ωστόσο, μοριακός μηχανισμός και ρόλος της κάθε πρωτεΐνης είναι άγνωστος. Στους προκαρυωτικούς οργανισμούς, δυο οικογένειες πρωτεϊνών έχουν προταθεί για την εμπλοκή τους στη συγκρότηση του CuA. Η πρώτη περιλαμβάνει πρωτεΐνες που δεσμεύουν ιόντα Cu1+ με ένα συντηρημένο μοτίβο δέσμευσης H(M)x10Mx21HxM (υποθετικές πρωτεΐνες Hyp1) ενώ η δεύτερη περιλαμβάνει τις πρωτεΐνες της οικογένειας Sco, των οποίων ο ρόλος στον μηχανισμό του CuA κέντρου σαν θειορεδοξίνες ή χαλκομεταφορείς, παραμένει ασαφής. Στην παρούσα εργασία αποδείχθηκε ότι μια νέα περιπλασματική πρωτεΐνη (TtHyp1 ή PCuAC) εισάγει επιλεκτικά ιόντα Cu1+ στην Cox2 υπομονάδα της ba3-CcO του Thermus thermophilus προς σχηματισμό του φυσιολογικού διπυρηνικού TtCuA κέντρου, καθώς και ότι η Sco πρωτεΐνη του συγκεκριμένου οργανισμού (TtSco1) δεν μεταφέρει μεταλλικά ιόντα στο CuA, αλλά δρα σαν θειο-δισουλφιδική αναγωγάση ρυθμίζοντας τη σωστή οξειδωτική κατάσταση των κυστεϊνικών καταλοίπων του CuA. Οι πρωτεΐνες PCuAC, TtSco1 και TtCuA εκφράστηκαν, απομονώθηκαν και μελετήθηκαν τα βιοχημικά χαρακτηριστικά τους, η ικανότητα δέσμευσης μεταλλικών ιόντων και οι μεταξύ τους αλληλεπιδράσεις. Επιπλέον η PCuAC χαρακτηρίστηκε δομικά με φασματοσκοπία NMR στην απο και Cu(I) μορφή της. Ο ρόλος των προκαρυωτικών Sco διερευνήθηκε περαιτέρω με μελέτες γονιδιακής ανάλυσης και την έκφραση και τον προκαταρκτικό χαρακτηρισμό μιας νέας πρωτεΐνης, PpSco1/cytc της Pseudomonas putida, πρωτεΐνης αποτελούμενης από δυο επικράτειες, Sco1 και cytc, συνδέοντας το ρόλο των Sco πρωτεϊνών με τη θεωρια περί θειρεδοξινικής τους δράσης. Καινοτομία στην παρούσα εργασία αποτέλεσε η μεθοδολογική προσέγγιση της πολλαπλής κλωνοποίησης των γονιδίων-στόχων με μια νέα τεχνολογία κλωνοποίησης (Gateway) συνδυασμένης με τοποειδική ένθεση σε πολλαπλούς πλασμιδιακούς φορείς και η ανάπτυξη high throughput τεχνικών για πολλαπλές δοκιμές έκφρασης – απομόνωσης. Η συγκεκριμένη μελέτη παρέχει νέα δεδομένα για το μηχανισμό τη συγκρότησης του CuA κέντρου της προκαρυωτικής CcO, υποστηρίζοντας ένα νέο μοντέλο για τη συγκεκριμένη διαδικασία και παράλληλα συνδράμει στην αποκρυπτογράφηση του πολύπλοκου ρόλου των Sco πρωτεϊνών. / Copper is essential for the correct assembly and function of the cytochrome c oxidase (CcO), thus for the efficient cellular respiration in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. CcO assembly in the inner mitochondrial membrane space is a multi complicated procedure, depended on a number of co-factors and their synergic action. These co-factors are proteins commissioned with the correct folding of the enzyme subunits and the transport/incorporation of heme moieties and Cu ions to them. While the proteins involved in this multistep procedure are rather known, the mechanisms of metal ion delivery and incorporation within the two active centers of CcO, CuA and CuB, still remain uncharted. The CuA center is a binuclear copper center, whose part in the respiratory chain is spoted in electron transport from the active cytochrome c to the catalytic CuB center of CcO. Efficient CuA assembly is crucial for the catalytic action of the entire enzyme. Several proteins have been characterized as essential factors for the transport of Cu ions to the CuA center; however their exact molecular mechanism of action still remains obscure. In prokaryotes, two protein families have been suggested to be involved in the CuA assembly. The first includes proteins that bind Cu1+ ions through a potential conserved motif H(M)x10Mx21HxM (hypothetical proteins, Hyp1), while the second includes proteins of the Sco family, whose exact role in CuA assembly as thioredoxins or copper chaperones is widely debated. In this work, it is propesed that a new periplasmic protein (TtHyp1 or PCuAC) selectively inserts Cu1+ ions in the Cox2 subunit of the ba3-CcO of Thermus thermophilus resulting the formation of the physiological binuclear TtCuA center, as well as that the Sco protein of the organism (TtSco1) is not able to transfer metal ions to the CuA center; instead it acts rather like a thio-disulfide reductase adjusting the proper redox state of the CuA cysteine residues. Proteins PCuAC, TtSco1 and TtCuA were over-expressed, purified and subjected to biochemical characterization, while their Cu binding capability and their inter se interactions were studied through NMR and UV spectroscopy. In addition, PCuAC was structurally characterized through NMR in its apo and Cu(I) form. The role of Sco proteins was further investigated through genome based analysis and the expression and biochemical characterization of a new protein, PpSco1/cytc from Pseudomonas putida, a unique bacterial protein consisted on two domains, a Sco1 and a cytc domain, presumptively connecting the role of Sco proteins with the suggested theory of thioredoxin action. A novelty in this work was the methodological aspect of the multiple cloning of the target genes with a new cloning technology (Gateway) combined with site specific recombination into multiple expression plasmid vectors and the development of a high throughput technique for parallel expression/purification tests. The infra work provides new insights to the CuA center assembly molecular mechanism of the prokaryotic CcO, supporting a new model for the particular procedure and also subscripts for the decipherment of the complicated role of Sco proteins.

No description available.

The thesis summarizes data gathered on various components of respiratory chain of Trypanosoma brucei. Namely, NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I), alternative NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (NDH2) and mitochondrial glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase are discussed themselves and in broader context of energy metabolism. Also, a work done using RNA interference library is described.

Aspergillus fumigatus é um fungo oportunista, sendo uma importante causa de morbidade e mortalidade entre os pacientes imunossuprimidos, acometidos com aspergilose invasiva. O sistema de defesa antioxidante do fungo atua como fator primordial de sua patogenicidade, mitigando os efeitos deletérios de espécies reativas produzidas pelo hospedeiro. Este trabalho teve o objetivo de avaliar o nível de transcrição relativo dos genes associados às proteínas mitocondriais e antioxidantes na presença de diferentes agentes pró-oxidantes para hifas e germinantes de cepas controle (CEA17) e nocaute para oxidase alternativa (?aoxA) de A. fumigatus. Utilizando qPCR, foram analisados 23 genes para as cepas CEA17 e mutante, dentre os quais, 5 associados à cadeia de transporte de elétrons (CTE), 4 relacionados aos componentes alternativos mitocondriais e 14 associados às proteínas antioxidantes. Os resultados foram obtidos através da normalização com o gene constitutivo gapdh utilizando a cepa CEA17 sem tratamento de cada fase de desenvolvimento celular como calibrador. As diferenças de transcrição da maioria dos genes estudados variaram com o pró-oxidante utilizado e com a fase de desenvolvimento celular (germinantes e hifas). A CTE em germinantes apresentou maiores níveis de transcritos dos complexos II e III em CEA17 do que em ?aoxA tratadas com menadiona. Com os demais complexos e atpase não foram observadas diferenças significativas quando comparados os resultados de ambas as cepas. Entretanto, os níveis de transcritos de atpase não foram superiores ao controle em nenhuma das cepas, sugerindo sua regulação na presença de ucp. ucp-like teve seus níveis de transcritos aumentados no mutante, sugerindo o desacoplamento da CTE em relação ao controle e à CEA17, que apresentou alto nível de transcritos de nde. Nesta cepa, os níveis de aoxA e ucp não foram significativamente diferentes. Esse fato, associado a níveis menores de ndiA e transcritos dos complexos I e II, sugerem manutenção do fluxo de elétrons na mitocôndria. Em relação às enzimas antioxidantes, houve aumento significativo nos níveis de cat2, catA, prx1, trx1 e grx1, indicando provável resposta à ausência de AOX. Os transcritos relacionados à CTE em hifas não apresentou diferença significativa nos níveis de complexo III e atpase em CEA17 e ?aoxA. No entanto, complexo IV se mostrou superior no mutante. Nesta fase de desenvolvimento, o aumento dos níveis de ucp-like está relacionado ao tratamento com menadiona e não com a presença de aoxA, explicando os mesmos níveis de transcritos em CEA17 e ?aoxA. Os níveis de nde sugerem atividade coordenada de sua proteína com AOX, por seus níveis estarem modulados pela presença de aoxA. A participação da Nde e da AOX na detoxificação das espécies reativas de oxigênio é sugerida ao se obter altos níveis de seus transcritos em hifas tratadas com menadiona. Diferentemente de germinantes, transcritos de sod3 foram predominantes em hifas de CEA17, enquanto transcritos de sod2 foram maiores em ?aoxA. Entre as catalases, os níveis de catA foram maiores no mutante, bem como a atividade das catalases como um todo. prx1 e trx1 foram maiores em CEA17 e ii grx1 em ?aoxA. Porém, trx1 atingiu os mais altos níveis de transcritos em germinantes, indicando possível redução de proteínas tiólicas e ribonucleotídeos por diferentes vias, de acordo com a fase de desenvolvimento do fungo. As enzimas antioxidantes clássicas, como superóxido dismutase, catalase e enzimas tiólicas, apresentaram aumento de transcrição na maioria das condições estudadas. No entanto, menadiona e paraquat promoveram maiores variações nos transcritos do que o observado com peróxido de hidrogênio gerado pelo sistema glicose/glicose oxidase. / Aspergillus fumigatus is an opportunistic fungus which has been referred to as a major cause of morbidity and mortality in imunosupressed patients affected with invasive aspergillosis. The antioxidant defense system of the fungus plays an important role in its pathogenicity by overcoming the negative effects of the oxygen reactive species produced by host. This work aims evaluating the transcription of genes associated to mitochondrial and antioxidant proteins in the presence of different prooxidants for hyphae and germinants of control (CEA17) and alternative oxidase knockout (?aoxA) strains. Using qPCR, 23 genes have been analyzed, 5 of which are electron transport chain (ETC), 4 are related to alternative components of the mitochondria, and 14 are associated to antioxidant proteins. The results were obtained via normalization with the constitutive gene gapdh using untreated CEA17 strain in each developmental phase as calibrator. The differences in the transcription of most analyzed genes varied with the prooxidant and the developmental phase (germinants and hyphae). The ETC in germinants presented higher amounts of transcripts of the complex II and III in CEA17 than in ?aoxA treated with menadione. With other complexes and the atpase no significant difference has been noted between both strains. However, the transcript levels of ATP synthase were not higher than control in any strain, which is related to its regulation in the presence of UCP. UCP-like had increased transcription in mutant, suggesting uncoupling from the ETC, relative to control and CEA17, which showed high levels of nde. In this strain, aoxA and ucp-like transcripts were not significantly different. This fact associated the lower levels of ndiA and transcripts of the complexes I and II suggest the maintenance of the electron flow in the mitochondria. Concerning the antioxidant enzymes, there was significant increase in the transcript production of cat2, catA, prx1, Ttrx1 and Ggrx1, suggesting a response to the absence of AOX. The ETC transcripts in hyphae did not present significant difference in the levels of complex III and atpase in CEA17 and ?aoxA. Yet the complex IV has shown higher in mutant than in CEA17. In this developmental phase, the increase of ucp-like is related to the treatment with menadione and not with the presence of aoxA, what explains the equivalent amount of transcripts in CEA17 and ?aoxA. The levels of nde suggest coordinated action of the protein with AOX, because it is modulated by the presence of aoxA. The role of Nde and AOX in the detoxification of reactive oxygen species is suggested by their high levels of transcripts in hyphae treated with menadione. Different from germinants, transcripts of sod3 was predominant in CEA17 hyphae, whereas transcripts of sod2 were higher for ?aoxA. Among catalases, levels of catA were higher in mutant, as was the activity of catalase as a whole. prx1 and trx1 transcripts were higher in CEA17 and grx1 in ?aoxA. Yet, trx1 reached the highest levels of transcripts in germinants, indicating a possible reduction of thiol proteins and ribonucleotides through different ways, according to the developmental phase of the fungus. The classical antioxidant enzymes, as superoxide dismutase, catalase and thiol enzymes showed increase in the transcripts in most of the analyzed situations. iv However, menadione and paraquat promoted higher variation in the transcripts than that observed with hydrogen peroxide generated by the system glucose/glucose oxidase.

2013 DIPLOMOVÁ PRÁCE Lukáš Novák Abstract Free-living microaerophilic protist Trimastix pyriformis is closely related to oxymonads which are the largest eukaryotic group without any known mitochondrion. In contrast to oxymonads, an enigmatic reduced mitochondrion has been found in the cell of T. pyriformis. In EST data of T. pyriformis, a number of genes has been identified whose products are putatively localized in the mitochondrion. Among these are genes for all the components of the glycine cleavage system, [FeFe]hydrogenases and the mitochondrial marker Cpn60. We performed experiments in order to determine the cellular localization of these proteins. Our results show that the glycine cleavage system is localized in the mitochondrion. Results of the experiments carried out in order to localize two hydrogenases suggest also the mitochondrial localization but are not fully convincing. The attempt to localize Cpn60 has failed. We have also identified a set of new genes in transcripts of T. pyriformis and Monocercomonoides sp. (Oxymonadida). These genes code for some components of the SUF system of FeS cluster synthesis and a peroxidase rubrerythrin. Key words: Trimastix, Monocercomonoides, mitochondrion, hydrogenosome, mitosome, hydrogenase, glycine cleavage system, SUF system.

Trypanosoma brucei, parasite protozoaire flagellé appartenant à l’ordre des kinétoplastidés, est responsable de la maladie du sommeil, ou trypanosomiase humaine africaine (THA). Son cycle de vie fait intervenir un insecte vecteur hématophage (la mouche tsé-tsé ou glossine) qui lors d’un repas sanguin sur un individu infecté ingère des parasites. Après plusieurs étapes de différentiation, les parasites sont injectés à un hôte lors d’un autre repas sanguin. Nous avons étudié le métabolisme intermédiaire et énergétique de la forme procyclique de T. brucei, forme présente dans l’appareil digestif de l’insecte vecteur. Chez ce parasite, la dégradation du glucose aboutit à la production d’acétate dans l’unique mitochondrie, et de succinate dans la mitochondrie et les glycosomes, organelles spécifiques des trypanosomatidés dans lesquels la glycolyse est compartimentalisée. T. brucei utilise une "navette acétate" permettant de transférer l’acétyl-CoA produit dans la mitochondrie vers le cytosol pour initier la biosynthèse de novo des acides gras et la production d’acétate est essentielle à la croissance du parasite. La navette acétate fait intervenir dans la mitochondrie l’acétate:succinate CoA-transférase (ASCT), qui converti l'acétyl-CoA produit à partir du glucose en acétate. Nous avons identifié et caractérisé une autre enzyme mitochondriale contribuant aussi à la production d’acétate à partir du glucose : l’acétyl-CoA thioesterase (ACH). Le double mutant n’exprimant ni l’ACH ni l’ASCT ne produit plus d’acétate et n’est plus viable, confirmant le rôle essentiel de la production d’acétate. Par ailleurs, nous avons montré que l’ASCT, grâce au cycle formé avec la succinyl-CoA synthétase (SCoAS), contribue à la production d’ATP par phosphorylation au niveau du substrat dans la mitochondrie, mais l’ACH n’est pas impliqué dans la production d’ATP. La thréonine est l’acide aminé le plus rapidement consommé par le parasite et sa dégradation aboutit à la production d’acétate et de glycine. En utilisant des outils de génétique inverse et des analyses métaboliques par RMN du proton et HPTLC, nous avons caractérisé la première étape enzymatique de cette voie, catalysée par la thréonine déshydrogénase (TDH), et nous avons montré que la thréonine est la principale source de carbone pour la production d’acétate, pour la biosynthèse de novo des acides gras et des stérols. L’acétyl-CoA est produit dans la mitochondrie à partir du pyruvate provenant de la dégradation du glucose par le complexe pyruvate déshydrogénase (PDH) et à partir de la thréonine dont la dégradation est initiée par la TDH. L’acétyl-CoA provenant de la dégradation du glucose ou de la thréonine est converti en acétate par les mêmes enzymes, l’ACH et l’ASCT. Nous avons montré que la voie de dégradation de la thréonine est sous régulation métabolique. L’activité et l’expression de la TDH ainsi que la production d’acétate à partir de la thréonine sont diminuées dans le mutant knock out de la phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) dans lequel le flux glycolytique est redirigé vers la production d’acétate. De plus, contrairement au glucose, la dégradation de la thréonine ne participe pas à la production d’ATP dans la mitochondrie du parasite. Nos résultats nous amène à l’hypothèse d’un channeling mitochondrial des voies de dégradation du pyruvate et de la thréonine pour la production d’acétate. Les trypanosomes ont développé une voie de biosynthèse de novo des acides gras faisant appel aux élongases du réticulum endoplasmique et un précurseur inhabituel, le butyryl-CoA dont la voie de biosynthèse n’est à l’heure actuelle pas connue chez les trypanosomatidés. Nous avons reconstitué une voie de biosynthèse hypothétique à partir de l’acétyl-CoA dans la mitochondrie. La dernière enzyme de cette voie, l’isovaléryl-CoA déshydrogénase (IVDH), a été caractérisée, et nos premiers résultats indiquent que cette enzyme est impliquée dans la production du butyryl-CoA. / Trypanosoma brucei, a flagellated protozoan parasite of the kinetoplastidae order, is responsible for human sleeping sickness or human african trypanosomiasis (HAT). Its life cycle is complex and involves a haematophageous insect vector (tse-tse fly or Glossina), which ingests parasites during a blood meal on an infected host. After a series of differentiations, the parasites are injected to another host during another blood meal. We studied the energy and intermediary metabolism of the procyclic form of T. brucei, which is present into the midgut of the tse-tse fly. In this parasite, glucose degradation produces acetate into the mitochondria of the parasite and succinate into both the mitochondria and the glycosomes. Glycosomes are specific organites of trypanosomatids in which the glycolysis is compartimentalized. T. brucei uses an "acetate shuttle" to transfer acetyl-CoA from the mitochondrion to the cytosol to feed de novo fatty acids biosynthesis. This acetate production is essential for cell viability. The "acetate shuttle" involves inside the mitochondrion, the acetate:succinate CoA-transferase (ASCT), which converts glucose-derived acetyl-CoA into acetate. We identified and characterised a new mitochondrial enzyme involved in acetate production from glucose, in addition to ASCT: the acetyl-CoA thioesterase (ACH). Indeed, a double mutant affecting expression of both ACH and ASCT doesn’t produce anymore acetate and is lethal, which confirms the essential role of mitochondrial production of acetate. In addition, we showed that ASCT, via the ASCT/SCoAS (succinyl-CoA synthetase) cycle, contributes to mitochondrial ATP production by substrate phosphorylation, while ACH is not involved in ATP production. We also observed that contribution of the ASCT/SCoAS cycle and oxidative phosphorylation by the mitochondrial F0-F1-ATP synthase to ATP production are similar. Threonine is the most rapidly consumed amino acid by the procyclic trypanosomes and its degradation produces acetate and glycine. Using a combination of reverse genetics, proton NMR metabolic profiling and HPTLC, we characterized the first enzymatic step of the pathway, catalysed by the threonine dehydrogenase (TDH) and showed that threonine is the main carbon source for acetate production, de novo fatty acids and sterol biosynthesis. Acetyl-CoA is produced into the mitochondrion from glucose-derived pyruvate by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDH) and by the two first steps of the threonine degradation pathway, including TDH. Both glucose-derived and threonine-derived acetyl-CoA is then converted into acetate by the same enzymes, ACH and ASCT. We also found that the threonine degradation pathway is under metabolic control. Indeed, TDH activity, TDH expression and threonine-derived acetate production are reduced in the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) knock out mutant, in which glycolytic flux is redirected towards acetate production. In addition, we showed that, as opposed to glucose-derived acetyl-CoA, metabolism of threonine-derived acetyl-CoA doesn’t contribute to ATP production into the mitochondrion of the parasite. Our results suggest the existence of mitochondrial metabolic channelings, which disconnect pyruvate and threonine degradation pathways leading to acetate production. Trypanosomes developed a specific de novo fatty acids biosynthesis pathway using elongases located in the endoplasmic reticulum and an unusual primer, butyryl-CoA. The biosynthesic pathway of butyryl-CoA has not been investigated so far in trypanosomatids. Genomic data mining of the T. brucei database, highlights an hypothetical mitochondrial biosynthesis pathway from acetyl-CoA to butyryl-CoA. The last enzyme of this pathway, isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase (IVDH), was characterised and our first results suggest that this enzyme is indeed involved into butyryl-CoA production.

Chez les plantes, les protéines à centre fer-soufre (Fe-S) sont impliquées dans de nombreux processus cellulaires (e.g. photosynthèse, respiration). La maturation de ces protéines nécessite la synthèse de novo des centres Fe-S à l’aide de machineries d’assemblage spécifiques. Les plantes possèdent trois machineries d’assemblage nommées SUF, ISC et CIA, dédiées à la maturation des protéines plastidiales, mitochondriales et nucléaires ou cytosoliques, respectivement. Lors de la maturation des protéines mitochondriales, un centre [2Fe-2S] est initialement assemblé sur la protéine d’échafaudage ISU puis transféré vers les apoprotéines cibles à l’aide de chaperons et de diverses protéines de transfert. Si ces étapes semblent suffisantes pour la maturation de protéines incorporant des centres [2Fe-2S], un couplage réductif de deux centres [2Fe-2S] est nécessaire pour la maturation des protéines de type [4Fe-4S]. Cette conversion nécessite des protéines de transfert et un donneur d’électrons, potentiellement la même ferrédoxine que celle qui agit déjà lors des étapes précoces pour la réduction du soufre. En combinant des approches moléculaires, biochimiques et génétiques, l’implication des protéines de transfert NFU et ISCA et des ferrédoxines mitochondriales (mFDX) dans les étapes tardives de transfert et de conversion a été explorée au cours de cette thèse chez la plante modèle Arabidopsis thaliana. Des expériences de complémentation en levure ont démontré que les protéines NFU et ISCA de plantes peuvent assurer les mêmes fonctions que leurs orthologues respectifs, suggérant que ces étapes tardives ont été conservées. Cependant, contrairement à la levure, l’analyse de lignées n’exprimant pas les deux protéines NFU indiquent qu’elles sont essentielles pour le développement de l’embryon. Au niveau moléculaire, les analyses effectuées à l’aide d’approches in vivo et/ou in vitro ont permis d’identifier une interaction entre ISCA1a ou ISCA1b et ISCA2, NFU4 et NFU5 mais aucune interaction avec les deux mFDX dont le rôle dans les dernières étapes d’assemblage des centres Fe-S reste donc incertain. La formation d’holo-hétérocomplexes entre ISCA1 et ISCA2 a été confirmée par co-expression chez E. coli et purification des protéines recombinantes. Globalement, en associant la littérature à propos de la machinerie ISC et les résultats obtenus, le modèle qui ressort est que des hétérocomplexes ISCA1/2 agiraient immédiatement en amont des protéines NFU qui permettraient a minima la maturation des centres [4Fe-4S] de la lipoate synthase. Ce seul partenaire pourrait expliquer en grande partie la létalité d’un mutant nfu4 x nfu5 car l’activité de plusieurs protéines centrales pour le métabolisme mitochondrial dépend de l’acide lipoïque / In plants, iron-sulfur (Fe-S) proteins are involved in crucial processes such as photosynthesis and respiration. The maturation of these proteins requires the de novo synthesis of their Fe-S clusters through dedicated assembly machineries. Plants have three Fe-S cluster assembly machineries, namely SUF, ISC and CIA, devoted to the maturation of plastidial, mitochondrial and nuclear or cytosolic proteins, respectively. During the mitochondrial Fe-S protein maturation, a [2Fe-2S] cluster is first assembled on the ISU scaffold protein then transferred to target proteins with the help of chaperones and various transfer proteins. If these steps are sufficient for the maturation of [2Fe-2S] proteins, a reductive coupling process of two [2Fe-2S] clusters is required for the maturation of [4Fe-4S] proteins. This conversion needs transfer proteins and an electrons donor, potentially the same ferredoxin which acts during the first step of the Fe-S cluster biogenesis for sulfur reduction. By combining molecular, biochemical and genetic approaches, the involvement of NFU and ISCA transfer protein and mitochondrial ferredoxin (mFDX) in the late transfer and conversion steps has been explored during this PhD project by using the Arabidopsis thaliana plant model. Yeast complementation experiments have demonstrated that plant NFU and ISCA proteins have functions similar to their respective orthologs, suggesting that these late steps are conserved. However, unlike yeast, the characterization of nfu mutant lines indicates that both proteins are essential for early embryonic development. At the molecular level, in vivo and in vitro approaches have shown an interaction between ISCA1a or ISCA1b and ISCA2, NFU4 and NFU5 but no interaction with the two mFDX whose participation in the late steps remains uncertain. The formation of ISCA1-ISCA2 holo-heterocomplexes has been confirmed by co-expression in E. coli and purification of recombinant proteins. Overall, the literature and results obtained here highlight a model where ISCA1/2 heterocomplexes would act immediately downstream of NFU proteins which would a minima allow [4Fe-4S] cluster maturation of the lipoate synthase. This sole partner could primarily explain the lethality of a nfu4 x nfu5 double mutant because the activity of several proteins central for the mitochondrial metabolism depends on lipoic acid

Metallothioneins (MTs) are small, non-enzymatic proteins that are involved in cellular detoxification and metal homeostasis because of their high cysteine content. MTs have also been identified as one of the vast number of adaptive responses to mitochondrial respiratory chain (RC) deficiencies. Aside from this, numerous other studies have linked MTs to several mitochondrion-linked components, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress, apoptosis, glutathione, energy metabolism and nuclear- and mitochondrial DNA transcription regulation. However, most of the reports concerning the putative link between MTs and mitochondria are from in vitro studies and relatively little supportive in vivo evidence has been reported. Information on the involvement of MTs with respiratory chain function is especially limited. Is was therefore the aim of this study to investigate the involvement of MTs in mitochondrial respiration and respiratory chain enzyme function by using an MT knockout (MTKO) mouse model, which was treated with the irreversible complex I inhibiting reagent, rotenone. The aim was achieved by implementing three objectives: firstly, the RC function was investigated as a complete working unit; secondly, the functional and structural properties of single units (enzymes) of the RC were investigated utilising enzyme activity assays and BN- PAGE/western blot analysis; and thirdly, the possible effect of MTs on mtDNA copy number was investigated. While some tendencies of variation in RC enzyme activity and expression were identified, no significant effect on the overall mitochondrial respiratory function, or any significant differences in the relative mtDNA copy number of MTKO mice were observed. Thus it is concluded, while MTs have in this study revealed relatively small changes in respiratory chain function, which may still prove to have biological ignificance in vivo, the exact nature of the putative role of MTs in mitochondrial respiration or oxidative phosphorylation remains undefined. / Thesis (MSc (Biochemistry))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.