The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate the effect of a prenatal hypnotherapeutic programme on the maintenance and promotion of postpartum psychological well-being of a group of first-time mother. Relevant literature on pregnancy, early motherhood and psychological well-being were explained in order to abstract important facets and perspectives to use as a background for the development and implementation of an intervention programme for the facilitation of psychological well-being of first-time mothers. Theoretical perspectives on, and practical applications of, clinical hypnosis were further analysed and used as foundation for the development of the hypnotherapeutic intervention. A hypnotherapeutic programme was developed, based on existing theoretical knowledge regarding pregnancy, childbirth and early motherhood, as well as clinical hypnosis, with specific emphasis on Ericksonian principles and ego state therapy techniques, enriched from the perspective of psychofortology. The empirical study consisted of a quantitative component and a qualitative component. In the quantitative component, a pretest-posttest-follow-up comparative design was implemented, with random assignment of participants to the experimental and control groups within the limits of practicalities. Both groups, each consisting of 23 women in their first pregnancy, completed the following questionnaires: (i) Perception of Labour and Delivery Scale (PLD), adapted from Padawer et al. (1988). Feelings about the baby and relationship with the baby (FRB), adapted from Wwllett and Parr (1997), Maternal Self- Confidence Scale (MSC), adapted from Ruble et al. (1990) and Maternal Self-Efficacy Scale (MSE) (Teti & Gelfand, 1991), to explore aspects of psychological well-being related to early motherhood; (ii) The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) ofCox et al. (1987) and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) (Goldberg & Hillier, 1979), to investigate aspects of psychological well-being as evident by the absence of pathology; and (iii) the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) (Diener et al., 1985), the Affectometer 2 (AFM) (Kammann & Flett, 1983), the Sense of Coherence Scale (SOC) of Antonovsky (1979) and the Generalised Self-efficacy Scale (GSE), developed by Schwarrer, (1993), to measure general psychological well-being. The Stanford Hypnotic Clinical Scale (SHCS) (Morgan & Hilgard, 1978) was used for the experimental group to assess hypnotisabili. The qualitative component consisted of in-depth interviews and an analysis of written responses of mothers in the experimental group. They commented on their experience of the programme and its impact at two weeks and ten weeks postpartum. Results from the empirical study indicated that the experimental group showed significantly more symptoms of depression and symptomatology during the prenatal evaluation than the control group. Since the experimental group was possibly more vulnerable than the control group in a psychological sense, the effect of the intervention programme could not be deduced from a pure comparison of postnatal evaluation scores between the groups. Therefore, it was decided to explore the significance of differences within each of the experimental and control groups, as well as between the experimental and control group, using the mean difference scores between prenatal and postnatal evaluation on each variable. Results indicate that the hypnotherapeutic programme was effective in enhancing most aspects of psychological well-being within the experimental group. This strengthened sense of psychological well-being was evident both in the immediate postpartum period and at ten weeks postpartum. The control group showed a spontaneous increase in psychological well-being later in the postpartum period. The programme thus assisted mothers in the more vulnerable experimental group to experience a stronger sense of psychological well-being sooner after the baby's birth. The experimental and control groups were further compared on the mean differences in prenatal versus postnatal scores on measures of psychological well-being. The results suggest that the hypnotherapeutic intervention contributed to an enhanced sense of psychological well-being in mothers in the experimental group, in comparison to the control group, during the early postpartum period, as measured by variables related to motherhood, absence of pathology and general psychological well-being. At ten weeks postpartum, the differences between the experimental and control group were less obvious. However, a very important finding was that mothers in the experimental group continued to show a significant improvement in psychological well-being as indicated by the absence of pathology. Specifically, there was a continued decrease in depression and general symptoms of pathology. Findings from the quantitative study were supported by remarks by mothers in postpartum and follow-up interviews, as well as their written responses, as part of a qualitative exploration of their experience of the programme and its impact on them. The findings give compelling evidence that a hypnotherapeutic intervention, focusing on the enhancement of strengths and inner resources, could alleviate depression and psychological distress during the perinatal period, as well as prevent the exacerbation of symptoms. Findings from the current study indicate that the developed prenatal hypnotherapeutic programme was effective in enhancing the psychological well-being of mothers experiencing a first pregnancy. Recommendations for clinical practice and further research were made, based on the current research findings. The contribution of the current study lies in the fact that it is the first to explore pregnancy, childbirth and early motherhood from a salutogenidfortigenic perspective, and to utilise hypnosis to facilitate psychological well-being in this context. It contributed to scientific knowledge in the fields of developmental psychology, psychofortology and clinical hypnosis. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Psychology))--Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, 2003.

Aim: Motherhood is placed under a lens by society: mothers are expected to fit within narrowly defined characteristics which dictate who mothers should be and how they should act. Although there are numbers of articles that explore this issue, little attention has been paid to how health professionals, and clinical psychologists in particular, position themselves in relation to societal ideas about motherhood. The research aims to define the discursive resources used by Clinical Psychologists (CPs) to construct the shapes and identities of motherhood, and to explore how these resources were deployed. Method: A discourse analysis approach is employed. Data came from 3 focus group interviews (N=9), which were set up in order to explore motherhood and mothers. Participants were all qualified CPs working within Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) in the UK. The research is positioned within a social constructionist frame and takes a critical realist position. The analysis includes elements of both discursive psychology and critical discourse analysis, filtered through a postmodern feminist lens. Findings: A number of discursive practices and identity positions around womanhood and motherhood were highlighted and a set of interlinked dilemmas emerged for women around how to be a woman and how to be a mother. A further dilemma emerged for CPs which encompassed how they worked with women, and what positions they took when doing so. Womanhood and motherhood appeared to be troubled, which had the potential to oppress mothers attending CAMHS. Female CPs were included within this trouble, however, which created interesting juxtapositions within the deployment of discursive resources. Finally, some positive discursive practices were identified which highlighted acceptance and tolerance of pluralities of being a woman and being a mother. Implications: Reflection, deconstruction and an opening up of the debate were seen to be useful devices in helping psychologists to expose potentially oppressive practices. Politicisation of psychology was also explored.

Overlaying was a common nineteenth century explanation of sudden infant death while bedsharing. This thesis shows that in many cases the term overlaying was a misnomer, and instead it identifies infant overlaying death as a socio-structural historical event that can best be understood within a sociological and social constructionist framework. It expands on the work of Giddens, Elias and Archer to develop a theoretical perspective that incorporates ideas about structuration, sequestration, figuration and reflexivity. It also deploys concepts such as motherhood, infancy, infant care, the family and intimacy to explore and analyse its research materials and develops two further explanatory concepts; reflexive motherhood and the sequestration of infancy. The thesis uses ideas around discourse as socio-structural conditions of action in order to expand current understanding of overlaying death, and it explores and analyses public representations of overlaying during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to detail the discourse of overlaying. It goes on to identify cases of overlaying in Somers Town, St Pancras, c1900; and it shows the influence of social conditions in regard to the way such deaths were interpreted. It then examines other cases of sudden infant death in bed through the case notes of pathologist Dr Ludwig Freyberger, and analyses these in terms of the domestic setting and the body. It goes on to detail and analyse a dispute between Coroner John Troutbeck, Dr Freyberger and the GPs of south west London to show the ways in which the overlaying discourse was deployed to support the claims and positions of those involved. Overlaying subsequently became detached from the domestic context in which it was embedded and used to support discourses around infant mortality, maternal ‘ignorance’, medicine, national efficiency and temperance. The thesis provides a historiography of infant overlaying death and concludes that overlaying was constructed as social category of death through the actions of individuals in extensive networks of interdependence in relation to socio-structural conditions.

Syftet med föreliggande kvalitativa studie var att undersöka unga svenska mödrars upplevelser och erfarenheter av amning för att öka förståelsen för kvinnors subjektiva amningsupplevelse. Studien syftade även till att undersöka hälso- och sjukvårdens och den sociala omgivningens roll i amningsupplevelsen. Nio semistrukturerade intervjuer genomfördes och analyserades genom tematisk innehållsanalys. Resultatet utgjordes av fem teman: Ömsesidigt utbyte, Oskrivna amningsregler, Att inte klara uppgiften, Någon att vända sig till och När stödet brister. Resultatet visade på informanternas syn på amning som naturlig och det bästa för barnet. Amningen beskrevs vara en viktig del av moderskapet och amningssvårigheter var förknippade med känslor av misslyckande och otillräcklighet. I resultatet framkom hur kvinnorna upplevde en press att amma, från både omgivningen och hälso- och sjukvård. Studien visade även på de unga mödrarnas behov och avsaknad av gemenskap och socialt stöd i relation till amningen. / The aim of this qualitative study was to examine young mothers breastfeeding experiences in order to gain a better understanding of women’s subjective experience.  Furthermore, the purpose of this study was to examine how the health care system and the women’s social environment influenced the breastfeeding experience. Nine semi-structured interviews were conducted and analyzed by thematic analysis. The analysis resulted in five main themes: Mutual exchange, Unwritten rules of breastfeeding, Unable to manage the task, Someone to turn to and When the support fails you. The results showed the women’s view of breastfeeding as natural and the best option for the child. Breastfeeding was described as an important part of motherhood and breastfeeding difficulties were associated with feelings of failure and inadequacy. The women experienced pressure to breastfeed, both from the health care system as well as their social surroundings. The study showed the young mothers’ lack of and need for social support and sense of belonging in regards to breastfeeding.

M.A. / Adults who have experienced sexual abuse as a child may encounter long-term effects on their functioning that could be regarded as problematic to the adult (Corby, 2006). Child sexual abuse has been a problem for many years, although it took societies exceptionally long to realise the actual implications of child sexual abuse on the adult (Spies, 2006). Long-term effects of childhood sexual abuse can be observed well into adulthood and effects such as depression and a low self-esteem have been confirmed by studies. The female victim of childhood sexual abuse often finds herself in the role of mother within her own family. The goal of this study is to explore the self-description of the female adult victim of childhood sexual abuse in terms of her role as mother in her family. This study seeks to explore the self-description of the female adult victim of childhood sexual abuse in terms of her role as mother in her family. The literature review gives an overview regarding the definition of childhood sexual abuse. Literature exists on the different long-term effects of childhood sexual abuse that may impact the adult victim and this has been discussed. Quantitative studies in terms of children that have been sexually abused and the long-term effects thereof indicate that childhood sexual abuse has an impact on the adult development. Minimal research has been conducted with regards to the female adult victim of childhood sexual abuse and her self-description of her role as mother in her family. The systems theory was used as a basic framework for the study. The systems theory focuses on the reciprocal interaction, interdependence, boundaries, roles and homeostasis. Assumptions from the literature review suggest that the mother cannot fulfil her role successfully because of the prevalence of negative behavioural symptoms such as fluctuating self-esteem and feelings of powerlessness and worthlessness. The counter argument included that the mother because of this experience may discover an inner power that may contribute to positive emotions from which she can successfully fulfil her role as mother (Bannister, 1998).

The aim of this essay is to explore motherhood in two postcolonial literary works by African American author Toni Morrison and British author Caryl Phillips, who was born in the Caribbean. The essay is based on Morrison’s award winning novel Beloved, which was published in 1987 and was inspired by the escaping African American slave Margareth Garner. It is set just after the American Civil War and the novels deals with the trauma of slavery from the perspective of Sethe, a slave who kills her own daughter to save her from slavery. The second novel on which this essay is based is Caryl Phillips’ novel Crossing the River, which was published 1993 and focused on the African diaspora from different perspectives. Crossing the River is a non-chronological narrative covering four different characters (three African American people and one white slave trader during the eighteenth century). This essay, however, only deals with the last of the four narratives depicting white British Joyce who mothers a child with African American soldier Travis. The hypothesis on which the essay is based is that the institution of American slavery has denied the female protagonists in the two novels, Sethe and Joyce, their maternal selves. The analysis revealed that both women suffer from racial domination, and race, or simply skin color, is what leads to the maternal loss of the two protagonists. Both authors depict the world of the colonizer and the colonized and they address the common pain and guilt shared by black as well as white people.

This study compared divorced custodial mothers and mothers married to the biological fathers of their children on parenting stress, parenting skills, and self-esteem. The relationship between parenting stress, parenting skills, self-esteem, marital status, and life satisfaction was also examined. A total of 63 subjects, including 31 married mothers and 32 single mothers, was administered the Parenting Stress Index, the Parenting Skills Inventory, and the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. Subjects also completed a Demographic Data Sheet that included a Likert-type scale designed by the researcher to measure current life satisfaction. All subjects either attended church or lived in a geographic area of North Central Texas that is generally recognized as being somewhat affluent. No significant differences were found on the t-tests comparing the mean total scores of the married and divorced mothers on levels of parenting stress, parenting skills, and self-esteem. A post hoc t-test revealed, however, that the group of married mothers had significantly higher mean total scores on the life satisfaction measure than the group of divorced mothers. Additionally, life satisfaction was found to be associated with parenting stress, parenting skills, self-esteem, and marital status. Specificallly, (a) as parenting stress increases, life satisfaction decreases, (b) as parenting skills increase, life satisfaction increases, (c) as self-esteem increases, life satisfaction increases, and (d) being married is associated with increased life satisfaction. The results of this study would seem to indicate that single mothers have no more difficulty in overall coping than their married counterparts although they are less satisfied with their current life circumstances than the group of married mothers. Additional comparisons of the data suggested that neither group of mothers regarded their children as interfering with their social lives in a major way. Like most previous research, the data also indicated that the single mothers worked longer hours and had less money available for their families' use than the married mothers.

傳統台灣社會女性結婚、生育年齡較早；但隨著時代改變，初婚平均年齡隨之升高，年輕媽媽懷孕事件層出不窮，導致年輕媽媽成為現今社會的特殊議題。由於社會及媒體的渲染使得年輕媽媽生育事件引起許多負面觀感，無論今昔社會都需承擔外在輿論、評判及污名化。正值青春年華卻遇到人生衝擊的轉捩點，在抉擇困難下，同時承擔起重大的責任。道德的衝擊與充滿變數的未來不斷拉扯，年輕媽媽所承受的壓力遠遠超乎常人想像。在年輕媽媽懷孕至生育的過程裡，隱藏著許多權力關係及文化背景的操控。 本研究運用半結構訪談蒐集研究資料，檢視年輕媽媽的生命歷程，描繪母職實踐的方式與分析不同母職類型，透過遇到的阻礙與困境，檢視社會對她們的污名，重構年輕媽媽母職圖像。研究個案非透過社福機構及相關單位，乃由研究者周遭同儕、社群網路介紹所取得，共四位年輕媽媽。本研究聚焦的問題及研究發現分為三大類別： 1. 綜觀心路歷程的體悟：年輕媽媽皆在家中感受不到溫暖及關愛，選擇離家，對於愛情的懵懂意外懷孕，最終選擇生育。未婚的年輕媽媽則要承擔起一切的重擔；已婚的年輕媽媽則要適應公婆、迎合新生活。 2. 年輕媽媽的母職圖像：年輕媽媽因事件不同對於母職態度的呈現有積極與消極的區隔，在教育孩子層面以干預程度的高低分為高控制與低控制兩種類型。 3. 母職角色的挑戰：年輕媽媽會以生活經驗、被教養的經歷及子女的個別差異來決定代間傳遞的教養方式；代間傳遞的教養可區分為連續性、不完全性及不連續性代間教養這三種型態。 本研究的發現提供年輕媽媽更有意識地覺知生命歷程的壓迫與突破，並發展出更切合環境脈絡的母職圖像。

The diploma thesis deals with the topic of work and motherhood. The first chapter of the theoretical part is concerned with the historical context and describes the development of woman's role in the labour market. The second chapter talks about trends and changes in the Czech family and also about the family politics in the Czech Republic. The broadest chapter of this part is aimed at the support that working mother gets to ease work-life balance. This support is divided into three groups - national assistance, employer support, family and public support. The last chapter of the theoretical part discusses the reasons why women come back to labour market earlier than they planned. The methodological part contains information about the survey, its strategy and technique. The research part describes the analysis of the data and their comparison to the theoretical findings. Key words: gender, labour, work, motherhood, qualitative research, maternity and parent leave, work-life balance, support, labour market

OUŘEDNÍKOVÁ, Veronika. Addicted mothers in relation to pregnancy and motherhood. Praha, 2016. 84 s. Diploma thesis. Charles University, Hussite theological faculty. Supervisor: PhDr. Miloslav Čedík The diploma thesis deals with problems of drug addiction of women during pregnancy and motherhood. The work is divided into theoretical and practical. The theoretical part discusses the basic concepts and generally approaching the issue. An important part of this passage is the chapter that describes care system in the Czech Republic on drug-dependent pregnant women and mothers. The practical part is mainly composed of qualitative research, which was conducted in therapeutic community Karlov with drug addicted mothers. The second part of the thesis is to investigate the influence of pregnancy and motherhood on the life of drug addicted women. In conclusion, the diploma thesis presents the results obtained on the basis of the research, which was conducted through semi-structured interviews with clients in healing the therapeutic community Karlov.