Orientador: Paulo Roberto Guimarães Júnior / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-18T07:48:51Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Marquitti_FlaviaMariaDarcie_M.pdf: 1225354 bytes, checksum: 120811efd17809715c9eb6454a6b9c34 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: Os mutualismos são interações importantes do ponto de vista ecológico e evolutivo, uma vez que influenciam a sobrevivência de diversos organismos, podendo determinar a organização da comunidade. Dada a importância ecológica e evolutiva das interações mutualísticas, é importante estudar quais fatores influenciam a sua organização. Como organismos aparentados compartilham características fenotípicas similares, é comum que espécies filogeneticamente próximas interajam com um conjunto de espécies similar, levando a um padrão conhecido por conservação filogenética do nicho. Apesar de este padrão ocorrer com frequencia, condições bióticas e abióticas locais podem levar à variação geográfica nas interações. A presença ou ausência de potenciais parceiros mutualísticos também podem alterar o padrão local de interações de uma espécie. Estudando interações entre morcegos frugívoros e plantas, investiguei como os padrões de interação de espécies em dez redes mutualísticas variavam conforme a distribuição geográfica. Nesse sentido, duas hipóteses principais guiaram este trabalho: a hipótese da conservação de nicho das interações e a hipótese da variação geográfica das interações. Caracterizei o padrão de interação das espécies de morcegos nas redes por meio de diferentes métricas usadas no estudo de redes ecológicas. Analisei a conservação de nicho das interações e a variação geográfica de espécies de morcego que ocorreram em um maior número de redes. Espécies filogeneticamente próximas não tenderam a apresentar padrões de interação mais parecidos entre si. Algumas das espécies mais frequentes apresentaram características dos padrões de interação em gradiente ou mosaico ao longo de sua distribuição geográfica. Estes resultados evidenciam que algumas características do padrão de interação de morcegos frugívoros, como grau de generalismo e o grau padronizado dentro do módulo são conservadas pela filogenia. No entanto algumas espécies apresentaram o grau de generalismo e o papel em relação aos módulos da rede variando ao longo da geografia, seguindo previsões da teoria do mosaico geográfico coevolutivo / Abstract: Mutualisms are important interactions to ecology and evolution because they affect the survivorship of many organisms and may shape community organization. Therefore, it is important to study which factors affect their organization. As related organisms share similar phenotypic traits, it is common that close phylogenetic species interact with a similar set of species, resulting in a pattern known as phylogenetic niche conservatism. Although this pattern frequently occurs, biotic and abiotic local conditions may lead to geographic variation of the interactions. The presence or absence of potential mutualistic partners may also change local interactions of a species. I studied interactions between frugivorous bats and plants and I investigated how species interactions patterns varied geographically across ten mutualistic networks. Two main hypotheses guided this work: the interaction niche conservatism hypothesis and the geographical variation hypothesis. I delineated the interaction patterns of bat species in the networks through different metrics used in ecological network studies. I analyzed the niche conservatism and geographical variation of bat species which occurred frequently in the networks. Related species did not tend to have similar patterns of interaction. Within their geographical range, some species vary markedly in their patterns of interaction and this variation often occurs as mosaics or, less frequently, as gradients. These results point out that some patterns of interaction of frugivorous bats, as the specialization degree and the standardized within-module degree, are conserved by phylogeny. However, some species showed variations through geography both in the specialization degree and in their role regarding the network modules, leading to a geographic mosaic of coevolution with potential implications to ecology and coevolution / Mestrado / Ecologia / Mestre em Ecologia

Orientadores: Paulo Sergio Moreira Carvalho de Oliveira, Sebastian Felipe Sendoya Echeverry / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-23T06:11:49Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Vidal_MayraCadorin_M.pdf: 1986442 bytes, checksum: da9ed52c0a73527b0590731f5ee8d10b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: Exploradores do mutualismo - indivíduos que utilizam recursos/serviços produzidos pelos mutualistas sem recompensá-lo - podem trazer sérios danos aos mutualistas explorados, principalmente quando acaba matando um dos parceiros mutualistas. Plantas portadoras de NEFs podem manter mutualismos com formigas visitantes, que defendem a planta contra insetos herbívoros. No cerrado de Itirapina (SP), encontramos larvas de uma nova espécie de díptero do gênero Rhinoleucophenga (Drosophilidae) que constroem abrigos de consistência pegajosa em cima dos NEFs de Q. grandiflora. Assim, larvas de Rhinoleucophenga podem interferir no mutualismo formiga-planta, agindo potencialmente como exploradora dessa interação. O presente estudo teve como objetivos principais investigar a história natural dessas larvas, principalmente aspectos do comportamento e interação com Qualea e formigas, e analisar seu possível efeito sobre o mutualismo formiga-Q.grandiflora. Durante observações de campo comprovamos que formigas e outros insetos visitantes dos NEFs podem ficar presos ao abrigo larval e servir de alimento para o díptero. Larvas de Rhinoleucophenga sp. nov. ocorrem em 85% dos indivíduos de Q. grandiflora, principalmente na época chuvosa ocupando preferencialmente nectários ativos, perto do ápice e na face abaxial dos ramos. No levantamento da mirmecofauna visitante de Q. grandiflora encontramos 27 morfoespécies de formigas, sendo as duas mais frequentes Camponotus crassus, e uma espécie do gênero Brachymyrmex, as mesmas que foram mais comumente encontradas presas aos abrigos das larvas mirmecófagas. Vimos que as larvas expõem uma substância líquida na abertura de seu abrigo, que comprovamos possuir composição química muito similar a do néctar extrafloral de Q. grandiflora, o que sugere que as larvas utilizam o néctar da própria planta para atrair suas presas. Na presença de larvas de Rhinoleucophenga, menos formigas visitam as plantas e também por menos tempo. Esse forrageamento diferenciado resultou em menor ataque de formigas a cupins vivos (herbívoros simulados). Além disso, na presença das larvas mirmecófagas houve maior abundância de herbívoros mastigadores e maior área foliar removida por herbívoros. Podemos afirmar que as larvas de Rhinoleucophenga sp. nov. utilizam o recurso da planta sem beneficiá-la. Além disso, as larvas do díptero também prejudicam a planta e suas formigas mutualísticas, uma vez que alimentando-se delas, aumentam a incidência de herbívoros e a herbivoria foliar na planta. Dessa forma, as larvas de Rhinoleucophenga sp. nov. estão agindo como exploradoras e do mutualismo formiga-Qualea grandiflora e predadoras de topo, causando efeito cascata nesse sistema / Abstract: Exploiters of mutualism - individuals that use resources/services offered by mutualists giving nothing in return - can cause serious damages to mutualists, especially when it involves the death of one of the partners. Plants bearing EFNs usually maintain mutualism with aggressive ants, which defend the plant against herbivores. In a cerrado area at Itirapina (SP), we found a new dipteran species of the genus Rhinoleucophenga (Drosophilidae) whose larvae construct sticky shelters on top of active EFNs of Q. grandiflora. Field observations revealed those ants and others insects that visit the EFNs can get trapped at the sticky larval shelters, and are consumed by the larvae. We hypothesized that Rhinoleucophenga larvae could be interfering with the ant-Qualea mutualism, and thus be acting as an exploiter of this interaction. Here, we investigate the natural history of Rhinoleucophenga larvae, mainly its behavior and association with ants and Qualea, and their possible effect on the ant-Qualea mutualism. Larvae of Rhinoleucophenga sp. nov. occur in 85% of the individuals of Qualea grandiflora inspected at Itirapina. Rhinoleucophenga larvae occur mostly during the rainy season, mainly at the apex and abaxial surface of the branches. We found 27 ant species visiting Qualea. The two most frequent visiting species, Brachymyrmex sp. 1 and Camponotus crassus, were most common insects trapped at larval shelters. Chemical analyses revealed that Rhinoleucophenga larvae use Qualea's extrafloral nectar to attract insect prey to their shelters. Qualea branches infested by ant-preying Rhinoleucophenga larvae had ant visitors for less time and in lower numbers than dipteran-free branches. This negative effect on ant foraging activity resulted in decreased levels of ant aggression to live termite-baits (i.e., simulated herbivores) on leaves of dipteran-infested compared to dipteran-free branches. Controlled field experiments demonstrated that branches hosting Rhinoleucophenga larvae had higher numbers of chewing herbivores and higher levels of foliar herbivory than dipteran-free branches. By using Qualea's EFNs as larval shelters and as attractants to ant prey, larvae of Rhinoleucophenga sp. nov. negatively affect both the plant and ant visitors, with cascading effects ultimately resulting in increased herbivore damage to leaves. Thus we can conclude that ant-eating Rhinoleucophenga larvae are acting as exploiters of the mutualism between ants and Q. grandiflora and also as top predator, causing cascade effect on this system / Mestrado / Ecologia / Mestra em Ecologia

An appreciation of the role of mutualism is essential when studying ecology and evolution in most ecosystems. Information covering aspects of mutualistic interactions can serve as a complement to the somewhat one-sided perspective from the 1950’s and 60’s that is used when teaching biology. In this thesis I applied an in-depth approach in which variation in the interspecific interaction between Aphis fabae aphids and Lasius niger ants was studied both in the field and in the laboratory. An emphasis was put on studies spanning several consecutive aphid generations. This approach revealed important differences between ant tended aphids and those without ants. In the lab, I found an initial decrease in aphid adult size and reproductive investment in the first generations after the start of ant tending, which was followed by a recovery to the pre-tending situation after about four generations. Another laboratory experiment showed an increase in alate (winged aphid) production from exposure to aphid alarm pheromones, and an even stronger decrease in alate production from ant attendance, suggesting that ants have gained the upper hand in an evolutionary conflict over aphid dispersal. Results from a field experiment further emphasized the possibility of negative effects of ants on aphids, showing that ant-tended aphid colonies experienced a higher rate of parasitoid attacks, produced fewer alates and embryos in adult aphids. The thesis highlights the scope for variation in the net effect of the interaction for aphids, and argues that, depending on the environmental circumstances, the interaction may sometimes and perhaps even often not really be a case of mutualism. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

The effects that mutualistic soil biota have on invasive species success is a growing topic of inquiry. Studies of the interactions between invasive plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) have shown changes in AMF community composition, reductions in AMF associations in invasive plants, and changes in native species fitness and competitive outcomes in invasive-shifted AMF communities. These findings support the degraded mutualist hypothesis, where invasive species alter the mutualist community composition, resulting in detrimental associations with the new mutualist community for native species. Here I present two studies that examine various aspects of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) mutualism in the success of a newly invasive bunchgrass, Brachypodium sylvaticum. The first chapter is a field survey of AMF associations between a native bunchgrass, Elymus glaucus and B. sylvaticum in the invaded range. The second chapter presents a test of reduced mycorrhizal dependence between invasive and native-range populations of B. sylvaticum. For the field survey, AMF colonization and spore density of root and soil rhizosphere samples from B. sylvaticum and E. glaucus from the two regions of introduction of the B. sylvaticum invasion were measured. In this survey I found lower AMF colonization and spore density in B. sylvaticum compared to the native species in the invaded ranges. The reduction in AMF associations in B. sylvaticum was predicted to be due to the evolution of reduced mycorrhizal dependence in invasive populations compared to native populations of B. sylvaticum. I tested the prediction for reduced mycorrhizal dependence by measuring the fitness gains or losses with AMF inoculation compared to sterile conditions in both fertilized and unfertilized treatments for individuals of B. sylvaticum from each of the introduction sites in Oregon, USA and source populations from the native range in Europe. There were no differences in plant or AMF fitness between the invasive and native populations of B. sylvaticum. Under high nutrients the interaction between all B. sylvaticum plants and AMF was mutualistic. Under low nutrient treatments both B. sylvaticum and AMF had reduced fitness measures, suggesting a competitive interaction. Nutrient levels of inoculated unfertilized soils are similar to field conditions. It is likely that the reduction in AMF associations in B. sylvaticum observed in the field is due antagonistic interactions between AMF and B. sylvaticum.

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A problem with the city is that urban development, for the last decades, has neglected the human scale. Since capitalism and modernism the focus has shifted towards the modern man, a new rational being separated from nature rather than nature being an ever present part of life. Adopting an architecture where form follows function. Focus is on designing for the market and economy which has generated a culture of consumption and capitalist cities plagued by environmental issues and social inequality and cities are not fulfilling essential needs of a big portion of the people living there. Our culture and cities have ecological ramifications that extend beyond its borders disrupting the very basic needs of human life.  Architecture must be designed for the collective rather than the ego. Rather than the few designing for the many, people should be a part of the making and remaking of the city and society. Design and architecture should rediscover our place in ecosystems and learn from nature how to adapt and be transformable. It should be inclusive, participatory and comprehensive to improve resilience.  Building laboratory explores how design and architecture can become mutalistic by including, teaching and learning from the inhabitants. Constructing by using simple strategies and local material.

Positive biotic interactions such as mutualism, commensalism and facilitation are ubiquitous in nature, but historically have received considerably less research attention than negative interactions such as competition, predation and parasitism. The paucity of research on positive interactions is particularly evident in stream ecosystems and in vertebrate communities. Stream fishes clearly provide an ideal system for advancing research on positive interactions. Many minnows (Cyprinidae) of eastern North America engage in a potentially mutualistic reproductive interaction known as nest association, in which individuals of one species (nest associates) spawn in nests constructed by host species. In nest association, hosts provide unsilted gravel substrate for spawning nest associates, and increased parental care to associate broods. High associate: host egg ratios can create a dilution effect, reducing the probability that host eggs will be preyed upon by egg predators. Nest associative interactions are common, but are relatively understudied compared to other interactions among stream fishes. The goals of this study were to apply general ecological models to this novel system to (a) gain new insight into the mechanisms structuring nest associative stream fish communities, and (b) to use inference from stream fish communities to potentially expand and improve the general ecological models. These goals required completion of three objectives, including (1) examining the influence of abiotic and biotic contexts on reproductive behavior and fitness outcomes between a cyprinid host and associate, using the biological markets model to generate predictions; (2) examining the utility of the nest web framework (previously only used for cavity nesting vertebrate communities) and the stress gradient hypothesis (previously applied almost exclusively to plant communities) for predicting which associate species spawn on nests built by various nest building species, and the consequences of these choices, respectively; and (3) using two-species occupancy modeling to determine the relative influence of biotic interactions and habitat covariates on the co-occurrence of a host and two nest associates. To accomplish these goals, I conducted a large-scale experiment to manipulate presence of mutualists (Nocomis leptocephalus, host; Chrosomus oreas, associate), egg predators (biotic context) and habitat quality (abiotic context). I conducted behavioral nest observations and conducted repeated stream fish stream fish community surveys to collect demographic data. I constructed a nest web from observational data, and implemented structural equation modeling through an information-theoretic framework to identify nest web plausibility across a large spatial extent. I tested some predictions of the stress gradient hypothesis by regressing juveniles-per-nest and a metric of cyprinid community structure on a composite measure of physical stress (scaled gradients of catchment-scale agricultural land use and catchment area). I used two-species occupancy modeling to model co-occurrence of N. leptocephalus hosts and two associates, C. oreas and Clinostomus funduloides, and used an information-theoretic framework to compare hypotheses representing the importance of biotic interactions, habitat covariates or both at determining species co-occurrence. Results corroborated some (but not all) model predictions, and identified room for improvement in each of the general models. Nest associative spawning by C. oreas was not context dependent; C. oreas did not spawn in the absence of a reproductively active male N. leptocephalus at any treatment level. However, the net fitness outcome of host and associate species was mutualistic, and the interaction outcome switched from commensalistic to mutualistic with abiotic context. N. leptocephalus reproductive success was improved by C. oreas presence in less-silted habitats, but not in heavily-silted habitats. This is most likely because broods were subject to predation in both habitat types, but were also negatively affected by siltation in silted habitats. Accordingly, egg dilution by associates was not sufficient to support a mutualistic relationship in less favorable habitats. Results suggest that the biological markets model may be a useful tool for predicting fitness outcomes of nest associative mutualism, but may not be as useful for predicting the behavioral outcomes of obligate mutualisms. Future applications of the biological markets model should carefully consider species traits, specifically the degree to which trading behavior is obligate for participants. Future work with this model will yield more insight by considering highly facultative associates. Nest webs constructed from nest observational data suggested an interaction topology in which strong (nearly-obligate) associates relied most frequently on N. leptocephalus nests, and less frequently on nests constructed by Campostoma anomalum. Weak (facultative) associates were seldom associated with nests constructed by either species, and probably spawned before hosts began nesting activity. Structural equation models corroborated this topology throughout the New River basin, although some less-supported model evidence specified some nest association by weak associates. Juveniles-per-nest of strong associates responded positively to physical stress, while this metric for other cyprinid reproductive groups showed no relationship. Proportional representation of Nocomis and strong associates also increased predictably with physical stress. This study suggests that the nest web framework can be informative to systems outside the ones for which it was developed; future studies may be able to use this framework to better understand the role of habitat-modifying species in communities other than cavity nesting terrestrial vertebrates and nest associative stream fishes. This work extended the nest web framework by (a) modeling the outcomes of interactions instead of the interactions themselves, and (b) by using structural equation modeling to test nest web predictions with an information-theoretic framework. This study also suggests that the stress gradient hypothesis can be useful for understanding interaction dynamics in vertebrate communities; this represents the first direct evidence that this model can be used in vertebrate communities. Further, I demonstrate that the stress gradient hypothesis may be extended to predict community structure. However, more research in a diversity of systems will be needed to determine the extent to which this can be applied. This study provides some of the first evidence of large-scale positive co-occurrence patterns in vertebrates. However, the precise roles of habitat covariates and biotic interactions were species-specific. Occupancy results suggest that co-occurrence between N. leptocephalus and nest associate C. funduloides is driven only by reproductive behavioral interactions. Alternatively, evidence suggests that co-occurrence between N. leptocephalus and C. oreas is driven by both nest association and habitat covariates. That two-species occupancy modeling can be a useful tool for comparing difficult-to-test hypotheses involving biotic interactions at large spatial scales. This study represents the first quantitative, multi-scale treatment of positive interactions in stream ecosystems. This study demonstrates that applying general ecological models to stream fish communities can yield new insights about both the study system and the models themselves. While models of negative interactions, food webs and dispersal have been applied to stream fishes, we stand to gain much ground by also considering positive biotic interactions. In doing so, stream fish ecologists will also be able to contribute to the advancement of general ecology, and thus raise awareness for these understudied ecosystems and taxa. / Ph. D.

生物學的互利共生，探討兩生物體生活在一起的交互作用，互利共生雙方成員都得到好處，維持持續性的關係。由於環境不斷在變動，使得兩生物體必須共同學會適應環境，持續共生行為。設計服務產業中的供應商及市場上顧客，有如互利共生的雙方，而服務產業的變遷及新科技的注入，為這個環境加入許多不確定性。設計團隊如何利用服務科學之觀點從顧客角度建立互利共生之設計流程，遠瞻市場脈動和顧客建立長久的關係，是本研究要探討的議題。近幾年來工業設計逐漸浮出檯面。箇中翹楚，莫過於「手機設計」。過去通話是手機最基本的功能。現在，因為功能的跨界設計，讓手機不再只是一個移動式的話筒。本研究從設計的流程切入，探究工業設計團隊在初期進行創意構思到概念構成，及最後設計商品化的部分，如何使用互利共生與服務科學原則建立相關分析模型進行設計流程有效管理，使得設計師更瞭解市場和消費者的需求，並以消費者為尊的觀念，讓客製化的程度提高，建立一使得顧客與設計團隊間的交互作用得以持續。 / In service exchange, both providers and customers are involved in shaping the continuum of value co-production. Inspired by the symbiosis concepts, service exchange engaged by providers and customers can be regarded as the unfolding of mutually beneficial interactions between two species. The providers and customers in design service industry (e.g., industrial design) are the analogy as two organisms in mutualism. In this industry, there are many uncertain factors to consider and it is important for a design team to establish a mutualism relationship with their customers and unfold a design service process which can meet consumers’ expectations. This paper takes the design service of mobile phones as an example and presents an analytical model of mutualism-based idea management characterized with the principles of symbiosis concepts and service science. The model is unfolded with three symbiosis analytic tasks (concept definition, idea visualization, and commercialization) and achieves a design service process regarding the points of view of the customers in order to improve customization.

Cette thèse a pour objet la modélisation de systèmes multi-proies–prédateurs. Elle s’intéresse particulièrement à l’influence du comportement d’un prédateur sur les interactions indirectes entre ses proies, i.e. l’effet de l’ajout d’une proie sur la densité des autres. La théorie classique prédit l’occurrence d’effets indirects négatifs entre les proies, ou compétition apparente, résultant de l’interaction avec un prédateur commun ; des résultats plus récents identifient certains mécanismes à même d’atténuer ces effets négatifs. Nos travaux revisitent les hypothèses autour de ces mécanismes dans des systèmes composés de deux proies et de leur prédateur commun. Après avoir fixé le cadre écologique en rappelant les principaux types d’interactions directes et indirectes, nous introduisons les modèles proies-prédateurs classiques. Les travaux se concentrent ensuite sur une famille de modèles présentant de la densité-dépendance négative chez les prédateurs couplés à différentes modélisations du comportement des prédateurs lorsqu’ils sont confrontés à plusieurs types de proies. Nous montrons notamment que les interactions entre ces mécanismes peuvent inverser la compétition apparente et, contre intuitivement, accroître la densité des proies par l’intermédiaire d’un prédateur commun. Nos résultats trouvent pour partie application en lutte biologique, où il est courant de chercher à favoriser les auxiliaires en aménageant leur environnement (apport de nourriture alternative, refuge, ...). Ils suggèrent que de telles pratiques peuvent se révéler contre-productives, le contrôle des ravageurs pouvant être affaibli du fait d’une distraction de leurs prédateurs. / This thesis deals with multi-prey–predators modeling. It is particularly focused on the influence of the behavior of a predator on indirect interactions between its prey, i.e, the effect of the addition of a prey on the other prey. Classical theory predicts the occurrence of negative indirect effects between prey, or apparent competition, resulting from the interaction with a common predator. More recent results identify mechanisms that mitigate these negative effects. Our work revisits the assumptions about these mechanisms in systems composed of two prey and their common predator. After setting the ecological framework by recalling the main types of direct and indirect interactions, we introduce classical predator-prey models. The work then focuses on a family of models with predator negative density-dependence coupled with different models of predator behavior when faced with different types of prey. We show that the interactions between these mechanisms can reverse apparent competition and counter-intuitively, increase prey density through their common predator. Our results are relevant to biological control programs, where a common practice aims at fostering biological control agents by providing them with alternative food or shelters. Our theory suggests that such practices may be counter-productive, pest control being disrupted by a predator distraction effect.