Au cours de ce manuscrit sont reportées l’élaboration et la caractérisation de matériaux ferromagnétiques doux : les microfils nanocristallisés gainés de verre de composition Finemet élaborés par le procédé de tirage Taylor-Ulitovsky et les couches minces amorphes decomposition CoNb et CoZr déposées par pulvérisation cathodique assistée magnétron.Une première partie du travail de thèse a été consacrée à l’étude de l’influence de l’état structural et de la composition sur les propriétés magnétiques, respectivement au travers des microfils nanocristallisés gainés de verre et des couches minces amorphes. Une deuxième partie a été vouée à référencer les différentes sources de dispersion d’aimantation des couches minces magnétiques, élaborées au déroulé sur substrat polymère. Une méthode a été proposée afin de quantifier la distribution d’anisotropie en angle et en intensité dans l’épaisseur. Le comportement magnétique des telles couches a été modélisé en prenant en compte la distribution d’aimantation expérimentale dans une approximation den-macrospins sans interaction d’échange. Un second volet a consisté à développer un modèle micromagnétique unidimensionnel prenant en compte l’énergie d’échange. Ce modèle a été appliqué avec succès sur une bicouche et une multicouche à anisotropies magnétiques croisées, élaborées spécifiquement à cet effet. L’étude exhaustive d’une bicouche à anisotropies croisées a été menée : aimantation statique et dynamique, structure en domaines magnétiques, aimantation dynamiquement couplée et caractérisation du profil d’aimantation dans l’épaisseur. / The aim of this work is to product and characterize some soft ferromagnetic materials : nanocrystallized Finemet-based glass-coated microwires fabricated using a Taylor-Ulitovskyprocess and amorphous Co-based thin films deposited by magnetron sputtering.In a first part, the influence of the structural order for the nanocrystallized glass-coatedmicrowires and the influence of the composition for the thin magnetic films on the magnetic properties has been studied.In a second part, the various origins of the magnetization dispersion of thin layers deposited continuously on a transported polymeric substrate has been listed. A method has been proposed to estimate both angular and intensity anisotropy distribution in depth. The magnetic susceptibility calculation taking into account the experimental magnetization dispersion is achieved in the framework of n-macrospins approximation without the exchange interaction. In addition, the static and dynamic magnetic behavior of both abilayer and a multilayer with crossed magnetic anisotropies has been reproduced by adedicated 1D micromagnetic model (with the exchange energy). In particular, a detailed study of such a bilayer has been investigated : static and dynamic magnetization, magnetic domain structure, coupled dynamically magnetization and characterization of the magnetization distribution in depth.

Submitted by Celso Magalhaes (celsomagalhaes@ufrrj.br) on 2017-05-09T14:28:22Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2016 - Leonardo Santos de Barros.pdf: 6766023 bytes, checksum: 16ce8cf6e87d3cfab0a3d73fc9a6e46c (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-09T14:28:22Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2016 - Leonardo Santos de Barros.pdf: 6766023 bytes, checksum: 16ce8cf6e87d3cfab0a3d73fc9a6e46c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-11-19 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior - CAPES / The photochemical reactivity of chalcone (CH) nanocrystals and its fluorinated derivatives (CH4F, CH23F, CH25F, CH26F, CH34F, CH35F, PFCB and the DFC) in a suspension of aqueous CTAB (0.04 mM) was studied by ultraviolet spectroscopy (UV), hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance (H1NMR) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The suspension of chalcone nanocrystals was prepared by the reprecipitation method in an aqueous solution of CTAB. The ultraviolet spectrum for the chalcone nanocrystals prior to irradiation showed hypochromic and bathochromic effects when compared to the methanolic solution. The DLS spectrum for CH CH23F, CH25F, CH26F and PFCB nanocrystals in aqueous CTAB showed a polydispersed system containing three different particle sizes, whereas CH34F, CH35F and DFC nanocrystals showed a clear monodispersivity. After irradiation, the DLS spectrum for these nanocrystals did not show significant changes, however for the monodispersed chalcones a shift towards larger particle sizes was observed. After irradiation the UV spectrum for the chalcone nanocrystals indicated a hypochromic effect on the longer wavelength band, which may be related to the consumption of their E-isomer. The kinetic monitoring of the E-isomer consumption for the chalcones CH, CH4F, CH23F, CH25F, CH26F CH34F, CH35F, PFCB and DFC as a function of irradiation time indicated that after a certain time the reaction reaches a steady state, with no more changes on their absorbance. The H1NMR spectrum for the irradiation product of CH4F and CH23F showed the formation of a mixture of ?-, ??-, and ?-truxillic dimers. On the other hand, irradiation of CH25F and CH26F derivatives led to the formation of the ?-truxinic dimer. Photolysis of CH34F and CH35F nanocrystals showed the conversion of the reactant to a cyclobutane through a stereospecific reaction. For CH35F only the ?-truxillic dimer has been formed, in nearly 100% conversion. However, for nanocrystals of the chalcone CH34F the Z-isomer is formed together with the ?-truxillic dimer CH34F, which may be related to a chalcone fraction that was solubilized in the CTAB containing aqueous phase. Irradiation of DFC nanocrystals occurred at a conversion of almost 100% to the cycloaddition product, the ?-truxillic dimer. For chalcone (CH) a high yield formation of the Z-chalcone isomer and dimers that are not formed from its E-isomer was observed, while PFCB appeared as a stable molecule during the irradiation process, and the presence of the five fluorine atoms on the benzyl ring can account for its stability / A reatividade fotoqu?mica de nanocristais de chalcona (CH) e seus derivados fluorados (CH4F, CH23F, CH25F, CH26F, CH34F, CH35F, PFCB e DFC) foi estudada por espectroscopia de ultravioleta (UV), Resson?ncia magn?tica nuclear de hidrog?nio (RMN1H) e Espalhamento de luz din?mico (DLS). A suspens?o dos nanocristais das chalconas foi preparada pelo m?todo de reprecipita??o em uma solu??o aquosa de CTAB. Os espectros no ultravioleta para a suspens?o dos nanocristais das chalconas antes da irradia??o mostraram um efeito hipocr?mico e batocr?mico em rela??o ? solu??o metan?lica. Os espectros de DLS para os nanocristais da suspens?o das chalconas em solu??o aquosa de CTAB se apresentaram como um sistema polidisperso apresentando 3 tamanhos de part?culas para CH, CH23F, CH25F, CH26F, PFCB e monodisperso para CH34F, CH35F e DFC. Ap?s a irradia??o n?o se observou mudan?as significativas na estrutura dos espectros de DLS para os nanocristais, ocorrendo um deslocamento para tamanhos de part?culas maiores nas chalconas monodispersas. O espectro de UV para a suspens?o dos nanocristais das chalconas ap?s a irradia??o indicou um efeito hipocr?mico da banda de maior absor??o, o que pode estar relacionado ao consumo dos compostos de configura??o E. O acompanhamento cin?tico do consumo do is?mero E das chalconas CH, CH4F, CH23F, CH25F, CH26F CH34F, CH35F, PFCB e DFC contra tempo de irradia??o de uma suspens?o dos nanocristais destas chalconas em solu??o aquosa de CTAB (0,04 mM) indicou que a partir de um determinado tempo a rea??o atinge um estado estacion?rio, n?o apresentando mais mudan?as em sua absorb?ncia. Os espectros de RMN1H para o produto da irradia??o dos nanocristais das chalconas contendo fl?or na posi??o 4 (CH4F) e nas posi??es 2 e 3 (CH23F) mostraram a forma??o de uma mistura de d?meros ?????? e ?-trux?licos. A irradia??o dos derivados CH25F e CH26F levou ? forma??o do d?mero do tipo ?-trux?nico. Para os derivados CH34F e CH35F a convers?o dos reagentes ao fotociclobutano foi feita em uma forma estereoespec?fica, tendo sido formado somente o d?mero ?-trux?lico, com uma convers?o de quase 100% para o CH35F. No entanto, para os nanocristais da chalcona CH34F o is?mero Z-CH34F foi formado juntamente com o d?mero ?-trux?lico, o que pode estar relacionado a fra??es da chalcona que ficaram solubilizadas na fase aquosa contendo CTAB e n?o formaram suspens?o de nanocristais. A irradia??o dos nanocristais da chalcona DFC ocorreu com uma convers?o de quase 100% ao produto de fotocicloadi??o, sendo o d?mero formado o do tipo ?-trux?lico. Para chalcona (CH) observou-se um elevado rendimento de forma??o do is?mero Z-chalcona e de d?meros que n?o s?o provenientes do is?mero E, enquanto que PFCB apresentou-se como uma mol?cula est?vel durante o processo de irradia??o, com a presen?a dos cinco ?tomos de fl?or no anel benz?lico podendo ser respons?vel pela sua estabilidade

Os nanocristais são partículas de fármacos cristalinos, com tamanho médio na faixa de submicrons, geralmente entre 200 e 500 nm, estabilizados por agentes estéricos ou eletrostáticos adsorvidos na superfície das partículas do fármaco. Sua dimensão reduzida proporciona propriedades especiais, como a adesividade às mucosas e o aumento de área superficial e da solubilidade de saturação, o que melhora significativamente a biodisponibilidade de fármacos pouco solúveis em água. Outra aplicação emergente dos nanocristais é na melhoria da entrega e da retenção de fármacos em tecidos e células tumorais. Estudos demonstraram que o flubendazol é um fármaco capaz de induzir a morte celular em tumores malignos e retardar o seu crescimento, por meio da alteração que provoca na estrutura dos microtúbulos e pela inibição da polimerização da tubulina. Foi demonstrada sua atividade antiproliferativa em linhagens de leucemia, mieloma, câncer intestinal, câncer de mama e neuroblastoma. O flubendazol é também um fármaco eficaz contra os helmintos, demonstrando atividade superior na eliminação dos vermes adultos, quando comparado com a dietilcarbamazina. Embora o flubendazol pareça ser uma molécula promissora, é um fármaco praticamente insolúvel em água (0,005 mg/mL). Para atingir o efeito terapêutico desejado, é necessário o desenvolvimento de uma formulação com melhores solubilidade e biodisponibilidade. Nesse sentido, o presente trabalho apresenta o preparo e a caracterização físico-química de nanocristais de flubendazol por meio da microfluidização. Foram realizados ensaios exploratórios para avaliar a performance de diferentes agentes estabilizantes nas suspensões: o polissorbato 80, o polaxamer 188 e o D-α tocoferol polietilenoglicol 1.000 succinato (TPGS). A avaliação da distribuição do tamanho de partícula foi realizada por espalhamento de luz laser (LLS), espalhamento de luz dinâmica (DLS), análise de rastreamento de nanopartículas (NTA) e microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV). A utilização do TPGS favoreceu a obtenção de uma nanossuspensão com o menor diâmetro hidrodinâmico médio das partículas, de 253,9 ± 3,0 nm. Nos estudos exploratórios, também foram determinados os parâmetros ótimos de moagem do microfluidizador, sendo estabelecidos: 35.000 psi de pressão, temperatura do produto de 30°C (± 5°C) e tempo de recirculação de 2 horas/100 gramas. Objetivando alcançar o menor diâmetro hidrodinâmico médio dos nanocristais, executou-se um planejamento estatístico no qual foi avaliada a influência da concentração de flubendazol (% p/p) e de TPGS (% p/p) na formulação. A análise revelou a significativa influência da concentração do TPGS na redução do tamanho de partícula e na estabilidade físico-química da nanossuspensão. Ensaios complementares de solubilidade demonstraram que o nanocristal proporcionou incremento na solubilidade de 2,3 e 3,2 e 5,2 vezes em HCl 0,1 N, tampão fosfato pH 6,8 e tampão fosfato salino pH 7,4, respectivamente. No ensaio de dissolução conduzido em HCl 0,1 N e 0,1% TPGS, observou-se significativo incremento, de 41% de fármaco dissolvido após 60 minutos, quando comparado com o flubendazol micronizado. As características do estado sólido do nanocristal foram avaliadas por meio de análise térmica (calorimetria exploratória diferencial e termogravimetria) e difratometria de raios X, não sendo observadas significativas alterações da estrutura cristalina. O presente trabalho também avaliou a efetividade dos nanocristais de flubendazol em tumores de pulmão, demonstrando sua expressiva capacidade de retardar o crescimento e diminuir o tamanho desses tumores em camundongos xenotransplantados. / Nanocrystals are drug particles with an average size in the sub-micron range, generally between 200 and 500 nm, stabilized by steric or electrostatic agents adsorbed on the surface of the drug particles. The reduced size provides special properties such as mucosal adhesiveness, increase in surface area and saturation solubility, which significantly improves the bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs. Another emerging application of nanocrystals is in the enhancement of drug delivery and retention in tumor tissues. Studies have shown that flubendazole is a drug capable of inducing cell death in malignant tumors and decelerating their growth, by altering the structure of the microtubules and inhibiting the tubulin polymerization. Antiproliferative activity has been demonstrated in leukemia, myeloma, intestinal cancer, breast cancer and neuroblastoma lines. In addition, flubendazole is also an effective drug against helminths, demonstrating superior activity in eliminating adult worms when compared to diethylcarbamazine. Although flubendazole appears to be a promising molecule, it is an insoluble drug in water (0.005 mg / mL). To achieve the desired therapeutic effect, it is necessary the development of a formulation with better solubility and bioavailability. In this context, the present research reports the physico-chemical preparation and characterization of flubendazole nanocrystals through microfluidization. Exploratory experiments were carried out to evaluate the performance of different stabilizing agents in formulations: polysorbate 80, polaxamer 188 and D-α tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS). The determination of the particle size distribution determination was performed by laser light scattering (LLS), dynamic light scattering (DLS), nanoparticle scanning (NTA) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The use of TPGS favored the preparation of a nanosuspension with the lowest mean hydrodynamic size of the particles, of 253.9 ± 3 nm. In the exploratory studies, the optimum grinding parameters were also determined: 35,000 psi of microfluidizer pressure, product temperature of 30 ° C (± 5 ° C) and recirculation time of 2 hours for each 100 grams of suspension. In order to reach the lowest average hydrodynamic diameter, a statistical design was applied in which the influence of flubendazole concentration (% w / w) and TPGS (% w / w) on the formulation was evaluated. The analysis revealed a significant influence of TPGS concentration on the particle size reduction and on the physicochemical stability of the nanosuspension. Complementary solubility tests showed that the nanocrystal provided an increase in solubility of 2.3, 3.2 and 5.2-fold in 0.1 N HCl, phosphate buffer pH 6.8 and phosphate buffer saline pH 7.4, respectively. In the dissolution test performed in 0.1 N HCl with 0.1% TPGS, a 41% increase of the drug dissolved after 60 minutes was achieved, when compared to micronized flubendazole. The solid-state characteristics of the nanocrystal were accessed through thermal analysis (differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetry) and X-ray diffraction and the results indicated that the crystal structure was not significantly altered. This research also evaluated the action of flubendazole nanocrystals in lung tumors, demonstrating expressive ability to retard growth and decrease the size of these tumors in xenotransplanted mice.

Les nanocristaux semi-conducteurs sont des objets de dimensions nanométriques aux niveaux d'énergie quantifiés. Grâce à leurs propriétés de fluorescence, ils trouvent des applications dans des domaines aussi variés que la biologie, l'opto-électronique ou l'optique quantique. Pour toutes ces applications, un contrôle de leurs propriétés d'émission est primordial. Dans ce cadre, après une étude fine de leurs propriétés d'émission à température cryogénique, nous nous sommes intéressés à leur couplage avec les plasmons de couches d'or désordonnées. Nous montrons alors la possibilité de supprimer efficacement les fluctuations d'intensité d'émission, d'accélérer drastiquement l'émission de photons et de créer des cascades bi-excitoniques.

Au cours des dernières décennies, les nanotechnologies, c'est à dire le développement de nouvelles méthodes de synthèse et la manipulation de nanoparticules et de leurs assemblage en nanostructures plus grandes, ont connu d'important progrès. Les nanoparticules offrent un grand ratio de surface sur volume (par rapport au solide), en faisant d’elles un état de la matière condensée important de par les nouvelles propriétés physiques et chimiques qu'elles offrent et qui n'existent pas dans le solide. L'auto-organisation de particules sphériques en deux dimensions (2D) et en trois dimensions (3D) des super-réseaux est couramment observée dans la nature, où les nanoparticules ayant des diamètres et des répartitions de tailles très fines peuvent s'auto-organiser en structures ordonnées en 2D ou en 3D, appelées supracristaux. En outre, les super-réseaux de nanocristaux binaires, qui sont des co-assemblages de deux séries distinctes de nanoparticules, ont également émergé. Par rapport aux structures formées de nanoparticules à une composante unique, une variété de structures de réseaux de phase binaires de nanocristaux ont été produites, et la prédiction de ces structures repose principalement sur le principes de remplissage d'espace. Cependant, en plus des structures cristallines connues formées avec le modèle de sphère dure, comme AlB2, NaZn13, NaCl en réseaux binaires, d'autres phases telles que les types CuAu, Cu3Au et CaB6, ainsi que des structures quasi cristallines ont également été découvertes, pour lesquelles les interactions entre nanoparticules doivent être prises en compte.Dans ce manuscrit, les récents progrés faits dans les procédés de synthèse et l’étude des propriétés optiques des nanocristaux d'argent et leurs assemblages en réseaux 2D / 3D seront examinées dans le Chapitre 1. Le Chapitre 2, se concentre sur la réponse SPR des auto-assemblages 2D de nanocristaux sphériques d'argent et d'or. Les bandes SPR observées dans les spectres d'absorption mesurés sont décrites et comparées à celles calculées en utilisant la méthode d'approximation de dipôles discrets (DDA). Les résultats semblables fournies par ces deux approches montrent que les méthodes théoriques sont adaptées pour la simulation de réponse optique linéaire de réseaux 2D de nanocristaux métalliques ultrafins et peuvent être utilisés pour modéliser et prédire leurs réponses optiques. L'influence de l'agent stabilisant des nanocristaux et leur influence sur la validité des simulations DDA est également discutée. Le Chapitre 3 décrit les propriétés optiques de nanocrytaux argent dispersés dans un solvant. La bande SPR de ces nanocristaux dépend non seulement du diamètre des nanaocristaux, mais également de la nature de l'agent stabilisant. Dans le Chapitre 4, la fabrication de films minces de supracristaux d'Ag et les propriétés optiques des films obtenus avec des nanocristaux de différents diamètres et des agents de stabilisation differents sont discutées. En comparant les spectres SPR de nanocristaux d'Ag dispersés avec ceux des films supracrystallins correspondants, d'importantes variations sont observées. La différence d'énergie (ΔE), décrivant la différence entre les positions des bandes SPR entre des nanocristaux dispersés et les assemblages correspondants se révèle être principalement dépendante à la fois de la taille des nanocristaux, mais aussi des distances entre particules à l'intérieur des films supercristallins. Ces résultats montrent également un bon accord entre les propriétés optiques simulées de réseaux 2D avec des données acquises avec des films minces 3D assemblés en structures cristallines cfc. En outre, il est démontré que la distance interparticulaire de nanocristaux modulée par la longueur de chaîne alkyle de l'agent de stabilization peut aider à faire varier la position de la bande de SPR. / Over the last few decades, nanotechnology, which is the development of new methods for synthesizing and manipulating discrete nanoparticles and larger nanostructured assemblies, have made great progress. Nanoparticles provide a high surface-to-volume ratio (compared to the bulk phase), representing an important state of condensed matter, hence exhibiting novel physical and chemical properties that are not observed in their bulk state. Self-organization of spherical particles into two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) superlattices is commonly observed in nature, where nanoparticles having similar diameters and very narrow size distributions can self-organize into 2D or in 3D ordered structures, also called supracrystals. Furthermore, binary nanocrystal superlattices, which are co-assembled from two distinct series of nanoparticles, have also emerged. Compared to the limited phase structures formed in the single-component nanoparticle superlattices, a variety of phase structures of binary nanocrystal superlattices can be produced, and the prediction of these phase structures mainly relies on the space-filling principles. However, in addition to the well-known crystal structures formed with hard sphere model, such as AlB2, NaZn13, NaCl, and laves phases in binary superlattices, other phases such as CuAu-type, Cu3Au-type, CaB6-type as well as quasicrystalline ordering were also discovered in binary nanocrystal superlattices, where nanoparticle interactions must be considered.In this manuscript, recent advances in the synthesis and optical properties of Ag nanocrystals and their assemblies into 2D/3D superlattices will be reviewed in Chapter 1. Chapter 2 focuses on the SPR response from 2D self-assemblies of both Ag and Au spherical nanocrystals. The collective SPR bands observed in the measured absorption spectra are described and compared to those calculated using dipole approximation (DDA) method. The similar results provided by these two approaches show that the theoretical DDA methods are suitable for the simulation of linear optical response of 2D superlattices made of such ultrafine metal nanocrystals and can be used to model and predict their optical responses. The influence of the nanocrystals coating agent and its influence on the validity of DDA simulations is also discussed. Chapter 3 describes the optical properties of silver nanocrytals when dispersed in a solvent. The SPR band of those nanocrystals is shown to be dependent not only on the nanaocrystal diameter, but also on the nature of the coating agent. In Chapter 4, the fabrication of thin supracrystalline films made of Ag nanocrystals is explained, and the optical properties of the as-obtained films composed of nanocrystals with varying diameters and coating agents studied. By comparing the SPR spectra of dispersed Ag nanocrystals with their assemblies of supracrystalline films, marked changes are observed. The energy discrepancy (ΔE), determined from the difference in SPR band between dispersed nanocrystals and their corresponding assemblies is shown to be mainly dependent on both the nanocrystals size and the interparticle distances within the supercrystalline films. These results also show a good agreement between simulated optical properties of 2D superlattices with data acquired with 3D thin films assembled in fcc crystalline structure. Furthermore, it is shown that the interparticle distance of nanocrystals, modulated by the alkyl chain length of the coating agents, could effectively tune the SPR band position. Chapter 5 is related to the fabrication of binary nanocrystal superlattices. Colloidal binary nanocrystal mixtures containing two distinct nanocrystals with either the same surface coating agent, called single ligand system, or with two different surface coating agents, refered as multiple ligands system, are used to grow binary nanocrystal superlattices.

Les nanomatériaux ont beaucoup captivé l'attention pour leur propriétés uniques, fortement associées à leurs dimensions nanoscopiques. En particulier, les nanoparticules (NP) à base de métaux nobles (Au, Ag) présentent des propriétés mécaniques, électroniques, optiques et magnétiques particulières intéressantes pour le développement d'applications dans de nombreux domaines à fort impact sociétal. En raison de leur stabilité élevée par rapport aux autres nano- particules métalliques, les nanoparticules d'or ont été abondamment explorées pour les nanotechnologies. Ces dernières décennies, les NHC ont émergé en tant que classe essentielle de ligands neutres en chimie organométallique. Les NHC sont caractérisés par leur flexibilité synthétique élevée, leur géométrie spécifique, et une liaison métal–Ccarbène très forte dans les complexes métalliques. Toutes ces propriétés ont été largement étudiées et exploitées pour les applications en catalyse homogène et pour le développement de complexes biologiquement actifs. Par comparaison, l'utilisation des NHC dans les matériaux reste largement peu explorée. Dans ce travail, le potentiel de ligands NHC dans le domaine des nanomatériaux, comme des agents de revêtement pour le produit nanocristaux de synthèse de l'or (et l'argent), la produit de stabilisation et de l'auto-assemblage dans supracrystals ont été explorés. Tout d'abord, des complexes d'argent et d'or-NHC qui sont bien définies avec différents ligands qui sont connus comme le NHC, sont étudiés pour leur pertinence afin de générer des astable nanocristaux (NCs) dans des conditions réductrices avec un bon contrôle de la taille des nanocristaux. Nous démontrons que le Au et le Ag NCs peuvent tous être formés par la réduction des complexes métal-NHC avec les amine-boranes. L'efficacité du procédé, la taille moyenne et la taille de la répartition des nanocristaux dépendent fortement de la structure du ligand NHC. Cependant, nous démontrons dans cette partie que les différentes voies sont impliqués à générer des nanocristaux par Au ou Ag précurseurs, comme une spécifique réaction observée entre Ag-NHC et thiols conduisant à la formation de thiolates argent alors que le Au-NHC correspondant reste inchangé... / Nanomaterials have received extraordinary attention owing to their unique properties, strongly associated to their nanoscale dimensions. In particular, noble metal (Au, Ag) nanoparticles (NPs) exhibit particular mechanical, electronic, optical and magnetic properties and present a high potential for developing applications in many domains with important societal impacts. Due to their higher stability by comparison with other metal-based nanoparticles, Au NPs have been extensively investigated for research in nanotechnology. In the last decades, N-Heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) have emerged as an essential class of neutral ligands in organometallic chemistry. NHCs are characterized by their high synthetic flexibility, their specific geometry, and a very strong metalCcarbene bond in metal complexes. All these properties have been widely studied and exploited for applications in homogeneous catalysis and for the development of biologically active complexes. By comparison, the use of NHCs in nanomaterials remains largely unexplored. In this work, the potential of NHC ligands in the field of nanomaterials, as coating agents for gold nanocrystals synthesis, stabilization and self-assembly into supracrystals has been explored. First, well-defined silver and gold–NHC complexes with different well-known NHC ligands are investigated for their relevance to generate stable nanocrystals (NCs) under reductive conditions with a good control of nanocrystals size. We demonstrate that both Au and Ag NCs can be formed by reduction of metal-NHC complexes with amine-boranes. The efficiency of the process and the average size and size distribution of the nanocrystals markedly depends on the structure of the NHC ligand. However, we demonstrate in this part that different pathways are involved to generate nanocrystals from Au or Ag precursors, as a specific reaction is observed between Ag-NHCs and thiols leading to the formation of silver thiolates whereas the corresponding Au-NHCs remain unchanged...

Cu2ZnSnSSe4 (CZTSSe) est un matériau prometteur comme absorbant de cellules photovoltaïques. Le développement à grande échelle de cellules solaires CZTSSe est conditionné au développement de procédés bas coût et soucieux de l'environnement. Dans ce contexte, le développement de films de CZTSSe à partir d'encres tout aqueuses de nanoparticules de CZTS constitue un challenge intéressant. Une stratégie haute température en présence d'un agent texturant gaz a été définie pour synthétiser des nanocristaux de CZTS présentant des surfaces polaires. Notre procédé agent texturant gaz met en œuvre la formation simultanée de nucléis de CZTS et de bulles de gaz. Nous montrons que la production en conditions de forte sursaturation d'une très forte concentration de nucléis de CZTS en association à un très grand nombre de petites bulles de gaz représente les conditions optimales de formation de nanocristaux. Par une étude électrocinétique, une condensation régulée par la taille de l'ion alcalin est observée dans la série des alcalins Li+ < Na+ < K+ < Rb+ < Cs+, démontrant la stabilité chimique des surfaces de Cu2ZnSnS4 en dispersion toute aqueuse. Par mise en œuvre des dispersions tout aqueuses, nous avons réalisé l'acquisition de données de base permettant de produire une preuve de concept de la formation d'un film sans fissures. Un autre point important à considérer lors de l'utilisation de matières premières bas coût est l'élimination des impuretés inhibitrices de la croissance des grains. Un profil spécifique de recuit des films est proposé mettant en œuvre une purification haute température pour l'élimination du carbone. En effet, notre stratégie met en œuvre la décomposition des domaines amorphes en carbone sp2 qui est ultérieurement éliminé via la formation de CSe2 gazeux. Finalement, des cellules solaires ont été fabriquées avec succès à partir d'encres tout aqueuses avec des rendements de conversion préliminaires jusqu'à 2,6 %. / Recently more attention is devoted to Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTSSe) for photovoltaic applications due to their non-toxic, earth-abundant components and good optoelectronic properties. Large scale fabrication of CZTSSe solar cells will rely on the development of low-cost and environmentally-friendly approach. In this context, development of CZTSSe films from all-aqueous CZTS nanocrystals inks represents an interesting challenge. A high temperature, gas-templating strategy has been defined to synthesize highly crystallized CZTS nanocrystals displaying polar surfaces. Our gas-templating process involves the simultaneous formation of CZTS nucleis and gas bubbles. We demonstrate that production of a high rate of small gas bubbles, as well as a high concentration of nucleis, depict optimal conditions for nanocrystal synthesis. By an electrokinetic investigation, a condensation regulation by the alkali ion size is observed in the alkali series Li+ < Na+ < K+ < Rb+ < Cs+, demonstrating the chemical stability of CZTS surfaces in aqueous basic dispersions. By using all-aqueous chalcogenide nanocrystals dispersions, we determined a critical cracking thickness of 250 nm and an average thickness of 100 nm to fabricate micron crack-free films using a multilayer procedure. Having in mind these results, we give the proof of concept of crack-free film formation from all aqueous CZTS nanocrystals inks. Another important consideration, when employing low-cost materials, is the removal of impurities, inhibitors of grain growth. A specific annealing profile is proposed involving a high temperature purification step in order to remove carbon. Indeed, our strategy involves the decomposition of amorphous domains into sp2 carbon which will be further removed via the CSe2gas formation. Finally, CZTSSe solar cells are successfully fabricated from all-aqueous CZTS inks with preliminary devices efficiencies up of 2.6%.

Deux méthodes de synthèse chimique, relevant de l'approche bottom-up, sont mises en oeuvre pour élaborer des nanocristaux (NC) de sulfure de cadmium (CdS) : les croissances (i) par source unique de précurseur et (ii) par voie micro-ondes. Ces deux techniques, complémentaires dans la gamme de tailles obtenues, permettent la réalisation de NC de petites tailles (2,8 nm - 5,2 nm) en seulement (i) 120 min et (ii) quelques minutes. Un protocole de caractérisation par techniques conjointes est mis au point pour étudier ces NC. La spectrométrie de masse (SM) couplée à des sources d'ionisation douce contrôle la pureté et la stabilité des précurseurs et permet d'estimer la taille et la distribution en taille des NC. Ces estimations sont confirmées par microscopie électronique en transmission (MET). La confrontation des résultats de SM et de MET suggère une géométrie des NC (i) sphérique et (ii) ellipsoïdale. La diffraction des rayons X montre l'état cristallin des nanoparticules en structures (i) würtzite et (ii) zinc blende. La spectrométrie optique à température ambiante (absorption et photoluminescence - PL) témoigne des effets de confinement quantique par le glissement de la réponse excitonique dans le domaine bleu proche UV en fonction de la taille des NC, s'inscrivant dans la correspondance connue énergie-taille. Dans la perspective d'applications optoélectroniques, le dépôt en couches minces de polymère (PMMA) contenant des NC de CdS est entrepris par spin coating. Le même protocole de caractérisations, enrichi de techniques adaptées aux couches minces, montre que les NC conservent leur intégrité et leurs propriétés de PL après inclusion dans la couche / Two chemical methods are developed to synthesize cadmium sulfide (CdS) nanocrystals (NC) in bottom-up approach: (i) single-source precursor methodology and (ii) microwave synthetic route. These two growth techniques are complementary in the size range obtained and allow production of small NC (2.8 nm - 5.2 nm) in only (i) 120 min and (ii) some minutes. A joint technique characterization protocol is developed to study the synthesized NC. Mass spectrometry (MS) coupled to soft ionization sources allows to control the purity and stability of the precursors and to estimate the NC size and size distribution. These estimations are confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Comparison between SM and TEM results suggests that NC have (i) spherical and (ii) prolate shapes. X-ray diffraction reveals nanoparticle crystalline structure in (i) wurtzite and (ii) zinc blende symmetries. Room temperature optical spectrometry (absorption and photoluminescence - PL) evidences quantum confinement effects by the shift of the excitonic response as a function of the NC size, in the blue-UV spectral range. These results are consistent with the well-known empirical energy-size correspondence. For optoelectronic application purpose, thin film deposition of polymer (PMMA) containing CdS NC is initiated by spin coating. The previous characterization protocol, extended to techniques dedicated to thin film studies, shows that NC maintain their integrity and PL properties after inclusion in PMMA layer

L'objectif de ce travail de thèse est de participer à l'élaboration de nanocristaux (NCs) de germanium et de mettre en évidence certaines propriétés de structures Si(n)/SiO2 contenant ces NCs non recouverts sur leur surface par l'utilisation de la technique nano-EBIC (courant induit par bombardement électronique et collecté par un nano-contact). La particularité de cette technique basée le même principe que l'EBIC classique est l'utilisation d'une pointe AFM conductrice à la place de l'électrode standard. Nous avons particulièrement ciblé le comportement d'un NC (ou d'un nombre très réduit de NCs) à piéger et émettre des porteurs de charge suite à un bombardement électronique non continu. La structure contenant les NCs peut être polarisée sous une tension nulle (alignement des niveaux de Fermi) ou sous une tension faible. Suite à cette procédure, des durées de charge ont été mesurées et les valeurs se trouvent dépendre de la taille moyenne des NCs. En effet, le processus de charge est plus long dans un NC de petite taille du fait de sa faible efficacité de stockage. D'un autre côté, le courant collecté présente une valeur de saturation plus élevée dans le cas des petits NCs. Ces deux effets (durée élevée et courant de saturation élevé dans les petits NCs) ont été expliqués par l'abaissement de la barrière d'énergie au niveau du contact pointe/NC qui résulte de l'élargissement du gap du NC et de l'augmentation du champ électrique dans la couche d'oxyde et dans la zone de désertion du substrat de silicium sous une tension de polarisation donnée. Enfin, la procédure, par son originalité, a aussi permis d'accéder à la résistivité électrique de la couche d'oxyde mince (5 nm). / The objective of this work is to contribute to the production of germanium nanocrystals (NCs) and to highlight some electronic properties of Si(n)/SiO2 structures containing those uncovered NCs on top thanks to the nano-EBIC technique (electron beam induced current collected by a nano-contact). The distinctive feature of this technique based on classic EBIC is the use of an AFM conducting probe instead of the standard electrode. Our study focuses on the capability of a single NC (or a few number of NCs) to trap and to release charge carriers as a result of a non-continuous electronic irradiation. The structure containing NCs can be connected to the ground (ensuring the Fermi levels alignment) or polarized under a low voltage. With this procedure, carriers charging times had been measured and their values depend on the mean diameter of the NCs. Indeed, the charging process takes more time in small NCs due to their weak storage efficiency. Nonetheless, the collected current reaches a higher saturation value in small NCs. Both of these effects (large charging time and high saturation current for small NCs) are explained by the lowering of the energy barrier at the AFM-tip/NCs contact, which results from the widening band-gap of NCs and the increase of the electric field across the oxide and in the Si depletion zone at a given bias voltage for small NCs. At last, this novel procedure allows measuring the electric resistivity of the 5 nanometers thin oxide.

Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq / In this work the synthesis of MgCdS ternary semiconductor nanocrystal alloys has been carried out by aqueous route through a bottom-up approach, using conventional hydrothermal heating as well as in situ onto graphene matrices. In the synthesis of MgCdS nanocrystals, the effect of each reaction parameter on the spectroscopic properties was studied aiming to understand the possibilities to control the optical properties. Emission spectra of MgCdS samples obtained in the experiments designed to optimize reaction parameters exhibited a single emission band reflecting nanocrystal growth, with quantum yields as high as 85%. Based on the presence of two bands in absorption spectra as well as atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) data it was possible to propose that nanocrystals are composed of Cd and Mg. Concerning the structural architecture, it has been proposed that nanocrystals show a core-shell structure with a diffuse interface. Data from AAS also showed that the final composition of nanocrystals is generally different from the initial reaction Cd:Mg proportion, as the metal precursors have distinct reactivities. Morphological analyses by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of nanocrystals evidenced the predominance of spherical shapes and sizes below 4 nm. Studies of the formation of nanocrystal alloys with Mg1-xCdxS and Cd1-xMgxS composition, by ion exchange from the binary components MgS and CdS helped the discussion of spectroscopic behavior of the ternary system MgCdS. It was possible to confirm that the introduction of a second cation (Cd2+ or Mg2+) into each binary structure (MgS or CdS) is consistent with the observation of two absorption bands and only one emission band. The addition of graphene derivatives during the synthesis of MgCdS nanocrystals was carried out aiming to improve the properties of the materials, as well as providing a physical support to the nanocrystals, favoring future applications. The presence of graphene induced shifts in the emission bands to larger wavelengths concomitant with intensity reduction, which can be taken as evidence of interactions between the materials. The morphologies of composites were characterized by typical graphene sheets decorated with spherical nanocrystals. / Neste trabalho foram realizadas as sínteses de nanocristais (NCs) semicondutores ternários de MgCdS via síntese aquosa através da metodologia bottom-up, assistida por tratamento térmico hidrotermal convencional, além da síntese in situ de nanocompósitos de MgCdS em matrizes de grafeno. A síntese do nanocristal de MgCdS foi avaliada através do efeito da variação de cada parâmetro de síntese sobre as propriedades espectroscópicas do material, a fim de se compreender as possibilidades de controle das propriedades ópticas. Os espectros de emissão dos NCs de MgCdS, referente ao estudo de otimização dos parâmetros de síntese, apresentaram uma única banda de emissão intensa que reflete o crescimento do nanocristal, com rendimentos quânticos de fotoluminescência elevados, chegando a 85%. Com base na presença de duas bandas de absorção no espectro de UV-visível, bem como de dados de espectrofotometria de absorção atômica (AAS), pode-se inferir que os nanocristais são compostos pelos metais de Cd e Mg, propondo-se a hipótese de uma arquitetura caroço-casca com interface difusa. Os dados obtidos através de AAS mostraram também que, como os precursores tem reatividades distintas, a composição dos materiais formados tende a diferir da proporção Cd2+:Mg2+ utilizada na reação. As análises morfológicas realizadas por microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (TEM) permitiram verificar o contorno esférico e uniforme das nanoesferas e estimar o tamanho dos nanocristais, sendo abaixo de 4 nm. Estudos de formação de ligas do tipo Mg1-xCdxS e Cd1-xMgxS, por troca iônica a partir dos componentes binários MgS e CdS permitiram compreender melhor os dados espectroscópicos dos nanocristais formados introduzindo ambos precursores simultaneamente. Confirmou-se que a introdução do segundo cátion (Cd2+ ou Mg2+) em cada estrutura binária (MgS ou CdS) de fato causa a formação de duas bandas de absorção e somente uma de emissão. A implementação de derivados de grafeno na síntese do MgCdS foi realizada a fim de aprimorar as propriedades gerais do material, bem como de propiciar um suporte físico aos nanocristais de MgCdS, favorecendo aplicações. A presença do grafeno na síntese do nanocristal proporcionou deslocamento da banda de emissão para maiores comprimentos de onda com redução da intensidade luminescente, evidenciando interações entre os materiais. As morfologias dos compósitos apresentam folhas de grafeno decoradas com nanocristais esféricos. / São Cristóvão, SE