Lié aux diverses formes de spiritualité contemporaine, le néo-chamanisme offre à ceux qui y adhèrent un parcours de spécialisation basé sur des techniques d’apprentissage thérapeutique pratiquées dans le cadre de séminaires animés par un néo-chaman. Cette thèse porte sur le néo-chamanisme en tant que phénomène culturel à visée thérapeutique lié aux diverses formes de spiritualité contemporaine. La partie ethnographique, fondée sur un double terrain, en France et en Italie, a permis d’identifier dans les deux pays un fonctionnement similaire organisé autour de cinq éléments qui caractérisent cette pratique. La fascination envers un ailleurs exotique, les références à des cosmologies indigènes, la quête du bien- être et de la guérison individuelle, la sacralisation de la nature, une relation directe avec le néo-chaman, et un mécanisme de dédoublement réflexif des participants, tels sont les principes constitutifs de cette pratique. La thèse s’appuie sur trois axes: les modalités de diffusion des pratiques, la construction de la crédibilité des néo-chamans, et l’efficacité thérapeutique mise en œuvre dans le cadre des séminaires. Le premier axe montre comment les pratiques se diffusent à travers des réseaux créés autour de librairies, de festivals et de formes de tourisme spirituel. Dans ce contexte, la crédibilité que les spécialistes parviennent à obtenir auprès de leur public s’établit grâce à une mise en récit autobiographique de leur position au sein de ces réseaux, notamment de leur rapport immédiat avec des figures fondatrices. Enfin, les relations rituelles que les participants établissent avec les différentes entités du panthéon néo- chamanique médiatisent la rencontre avec soi-même et la création d’un lien avec une nature extérieure et en même temps avec une nature intime, envisagée comme résidant à l’intérieur de chacun. / This thesis investigates neo-shamanism, a cultural phenomenon with therapeutic purposes tied to different forms of contemporary spirituality. In addition to healing, the Neo-shamanistic practices being studied also offer adherents a specialized apprenticeship in the techniques as implemented during the seminars led by the neo-shaman. The ethnography, conducted in both France and Italy, finds similarities among the two countries which can be organized around five different elements that characterize such practice; a fascination with an ‘exotic elsewhere’, reference to indigenous cosmologies, a quest for well-being and individual healing, the sacralization of nature, a direct relationship with the neo-shaman and a twofold reflexivity of participants. The thesis highlights three elements; the spreading of the practices, the credibility of the neo-shaman and the therapeutic efficacy achieved during the seminars. The first element shows how practices spread via bookstores, festivals and forms of spiritual tourism. The analysis then demonstrates how the specialists earn credibility from their audiences. The third element of the thesis deals with the ritual relationships that the participants establish with the entities populating the neo-shamanic pantheon. These relationships with different entities mediate a therapeutic encounter with oneself while also constructing a bond with the outer and intimate nature thought to reside within all humanity.

This dissertation examines the process of shamanic healing and recovery with an emphasis on client's perspective and offers an interpretive framework within which patients' experience can be understood. The thesis is based on field research and in-depth interviews with clients of shamanic healing. Based on their accounts, the thesis examines, how they perceive, describe and experience shamanic healing. Then seeks to answer the question of how and what shamanic healing "really" heals and cures. This thesis first examines the broader topics and then proceeds into deeper detail. The first chapter deals with defining and situating contemporary shamanism within the milieu of contemporary alternative religiosity. It understands "alternative spirituality" - through a definition focused on religious practice - as a "religion" and shamanism as its "configuration". The second part of the thesis undertakes a historical analysis of the discursive understanding of the word "shaman" and shows how the meaning of the word "shaman" has changed over time to the contemporary popular understanding of the shaman as a healer. The following chapters deal directly with shamanic healing. The third chapter deals with shamanism in terms of ethnomedical classification and through the concepts that shamans use in healing....

L'appropriation culturelle possède une diffusion très large et est un phénomène essentiellement intemporel. L'appropriation culturelle est définie comme «the taking- from a culture that is not one’s own- of intellectual property, cultural expressions or artifacts, history and ways of knowledge» (Ziff et Rao 1997: 1). Cela comprend tous les aspects de la spiritualité, les objets sacrés, des valeurs, des histoires et des rites. L'appropriation est étroitement liée aux relations de pouvoir et à la politique. Avec la montée de la popularité du chamanisme et du néo-chamanisme dans la société occidentale, les peuples amérindiens de l'Amérique du Nord (ou d’Australie) expriment leurs inquiétudes et leur désapprobation en ce qui concerne l’appropriation de leurs cérémonies, rituels et croyances sacrées par les Occidentaux. Par le discours contre l'appropriation, les populations autochtones (re)gagnent et (re)créent une identité qui avait été négligée, supprimée et assimilée au cours de la colonisation. Cette création identitaire s’effectue par l'intermédiaire de l'écriture, dans les milieux universitaires, aussi non-académiques, et le partage des pratiques rituelles avec d'autres autochtones (pan amérindianisme). Les auteurs autochtones contestent le statu quo et désirent contribuer à faire avancer le débat concernant l'appropriation spirituelle, les relations de pouvoir et le néo-colonialisme. Les arguments et les opinions concernant l'appropriation spirituelle présentés ici traitent de génocide culturel, d’abus sexuels, de néo-colonialisme, de non-respect et d'inquiétude face aux dangers liés à une mauvaise utilisation des rituels et autres pratiques sacrées. Ce débat est lié au processus de guérison en contexte amérindien (Episkenew 2009). En participant à ce débat sur l'appropriation spirituelle, les peuples autochtones sont activement engagés dans la (re)définition de leur identité. C'est cet engagement actif qui permet à la guérison d’avoir lieu. Ce mémoire aborde quelques-uns des auteurs autochtones contemporains et examine leurs écrits. L'importance de l'histoire et du mot dans la création identitaire est explorée. L’analyse de certains textes portant sur la médecine, la sociologie, la religion et la culture de consommation rend explicite le lien entre identité et politique. / Cultural appropriation is a very wide spread and essentially timeless phenomenon. Cultural appropriation is defined as “the taking- from a culture that is not one’s own- of intellectual property, cultural expressions or artifacts, history and ways of knowledge” (Ziff and Rao 1997: 1). This includes all aspects of spirituality, sacred items, values, stories and rites. Appropriation is closely linked to power relations and politics. With the rise of popularity of shamanism and neo-shamanism in Western society, the Indigenous people of North America (and Australia) are voicing their concerns, disapproval and opinions with regards to Western people appropriating Native ceremonies, rituals and sacred beliefs. Through the discourse of countering appropriation the Indigenous, people are (re)gaining and (re)creating an identity which had been neglected, suppressed and assimilated during the course of colonization. It is through the medium of writing in the academic, as well as non-academic, and the sharing of practices with other Natives (Pan-Indianism) that an identity is created. Native authors are challenging the status quo and engage, contribute and advance the debate of spiritual appropriation, power relations and neo-colonialism. The arguments and opinions with regards to spiritual appropriation presented here range from cultural genocide, sexual abuse, neo-colonialism, and disrespect to concern of improper use that can be dangerous for the user/practitioner. By engaging in the debate Indigenous culture is engaging in the healing process (Episkenew 2009). By participating in the debate of spiritual appropriation the Indigenous people are actively engaging in (re)defining their identity. It is this active engagement that allows healing to take place. The thesis brings together some of the current, Native authors and examines their opinions. The importance of the story and the word as creating identities is explored. By using diverse literature, some texts focusing on medicine, sociology, religion and consumer culture the debate of spiritual appropriation and the link to identity and politics is made more explicit.

Esta tese é uma cartografia do dispositivo do neoxamanismo. Nela se mostra o processo de chegada de três diferentes tradições de neoxamanismo no Uruguai, que provém do Peru, Brasil e México: o vegetalismo amazônico, o Santo Daime e o Caminho Vermelho, respectivamente. Também descreve um quarto grupo neoxamânico uruguaio, independente dessas tradições, que toma elementos das mesmas. Analisa-se o neoxamanismo como um dispositivo, isto é, como um conjunto de discursos associados a uma imaginada espiritualidade indígena e umas práticas que giram em torno do uso de plantas de poder e da realização de rituais de busca espiritual e de cura. A cura é entendida enquanto expansão da consciência e “reconexão” com outras formas de estar no mundo, diferentes das modernas hegemônicas. Esta diferença se articula através da colocação em circulação de epistemologias outras, “nativas” do continente americano. O conjunto da tese levanta uma tensão, no marco do paradigma da modernidade/colonialidade, em torno da imbricação dos processos de (des)colonialidade que convergem no dispositivo do neoxamanismo. Observam-se alguns efeitos que o neoxamanismo produz e se propõe as ideias de amazonismo e de neo-orientalidade (para o Uruguai) para compreendê-los. / This thesis proposes a cartography of the neo-shamanism dispositif. It describes the process of arrival of three different neo-shamanic traditions in Uruguay: Amazonian vegetalismo, Santo Daime and Red Path, originating from Peru, Brazil and Mexico respectively. Furthermore it describes a Uruguayan neo-shamanic group, independent from these traditions, but which has adapted elements from them. The study analyses neo-shamanism as a dispositif, understood as a set of discourses, associated to an imagined indigenous spirituality, and practices relating to the use of power plants and the performing of rituals for spiritual quest and healing. The cure is understood as an Expansion of Consciousness and "reconnection" with other ways of being in the world, different from those of the modern hegemonic. That difference is articulated through the circulation of Other epistemologies, considered to be "native" originating from the American Continent. The overall thesis presents a tension, within the paradigm of modernity/coloniality, around the interweaving of processes of (de)coloniality converging on the neo-shamanism dispositif. Finally, it observes some effects produced by neo-shamanism and proposes understating these through the perspective of Amazonism and neo-orientalidad (in Uruguay). / Esta tesis es una cartografía del dispositivo del neochamanismo. En ella se muestra el proceso de llegada de tres tradiciones diferentes de neochamanismo al Uruguay, que provienen de Perú, Brasil y México: el vegetalismo amazónico, el Santo Daime y el Camino Rojo, respectivamente. Asimismo, describe un grupo neochamánico uruguayo, independiente de esas tradiciones, que toma elementos de ellas. Se analiza el neochamanismo como un dispositivo, es decir, un conjunto de discursos asociados a una imaginada espiritualidad indígena y unas prácticas que giran en torno al uso de plantas de poder y la realización de rituales de búsqueda espiritual y cura. La cura es entendida en tanto expansión de la conciencia y “reconexión” con otras formas de estar en el mundo, diferentes a las modernas hegemónicas. Esa diferencia se articula a través de la puesta en circulación de epistemologías otras, “nativas” del continente americano. El conjunto de la tesis plantea una tensión, en el marco del paradigma de la modernidad/colonialidad, en torno a la imbricación de los procesos de (de)colonialidad que convergen en el dispositivo del neochamanismo. Se observan algunos efectos que el neochamanismo produce y se proponen las ideas de amazonismo y de neo-orientalidad (por el Uruguay) para comprenderlos.

L'appropriation culturelle possède une diffusion très large et est un phénomène essentiellement intemporel. L'appropriation culturelle est définie comme «the taking- from a culture that is not one’s own- of intellectual property, cultural expressions or artifacts, history and ways of knowledge» (Ziff et Rao 1997: 1). Cela comprend tous les aspects de la spiritualité, les objets sacrés, des valeurs, des histoires et des rites. L'appropriation est étroitement liée aux relations de pouvoir et à la politique. Avec la montée de la popularité du chamanisme et du néo-chamanisme dans la société occidentale, les peuples amérindiens de l'Amérique du Nord (ou d’Australie) expriment leurs inquiétudes et leur désapprobation en ce qui concerne l’appropriation de leurs cérémonies, rituels et croyances sacrées par les Occidentaux. Par le discours contre l'appropriation, les populations autochtones (re)gagnent et (re)créent une identité qui avait été négligée, supprimée et assimilée au cours de la colonisation. Cette création identitaire s’effectue par l'intermédiaire de l'écriture, dans les milieux universitaires, aussi non-académiques, et le partage des pratiques rituelles avec d'autres autochtones (pan amérindianisme). Les auteurs autochtones contestent le statu quo et désirent contribuer à faire avancer le débat concernant l'appropriation spirituelle, les relations de pouvoir et le néo-colonialisme. Les arguments et les opinions concernant l'appropriation spirituelle présentés ici traitent de génocide culturel, d’abus sexuels, de néo-colonialisme, de non-respect et d'inquiétude face aux dangers liés à une mauvaise utilisation des rituels et autres pratiques sacrées. Ce débat est lié au processus de guérison en contexte amérindien (Episkenew 2009). En participant à ce débat sur l'appropriation spirituelle, les peuples autochtones sont activement engagés dans la (re)définition de leur identité. C'est cet engagement actif qui permet à la guérison d’avoir lieu. Ce mémoire aborde quelques-uns des auteurs autochtones contemporains et examine leurs écrits. L'importance de l'histoire et du mot dans la création identitaire est explorée. L’analyse de certains textes portant sur la médecine, la sociologie, la religion et la culture de consommation rend explicite le lien entre identité et politique. / Cultural appropriation is a very wide spread and essentially timeless phenomenon. Cultural appropriation is defined as “the taking- from a culture that is not one’s own- of intellectual property, cultural expressions or artifacts, history and ways of knowledge” (Ziff and Rao 1997: 1). This includes all aspects of spirituality, sacred items, values, stories and rites. Appropriation is closely linked to power relations and politics. With the rise of popularity of shamanism and neo-shamanism in Western society, the Indigenous people of North America (and Australia) are voicing their concerns, disapproval and opinions with regards to Western people appropriating Native ceremonies, rituals and sacred beliefs. Through the discourse of countering appropriation the Indigenous, people are (re)gaining and (re)creating an identity which had been neglected, suppressed and assimilated during the course of colonization. It is through the medium of writing in the academic, as well as non-academic, and the sharing of practices with other Natives (Pan-Indianism) that an identity is created. Native authors are challenging the status quo and engage, contribute and advance the debate of spiritual appropriation, power relations and neo-colonialism. The arguments and opinions with regards to spiritual appropriation presented here range from cultural genocide, sexual abuse, neo-colonialism, and disrespect to concern of improper use that can be dangerous for the user/practitioner. By engaging in the debate Indigenous culture is engaging in the healing process (Episkenew 2009). By participating in the debate of spiritual appropriation the Indigenous people are actively engaging in (re)defining their identity. It is this active engagement that allows healing to take place. The thesis brings together some of the current, Native authors and examines their opinions. The importance of the story and the word as creating identities is explored. By using diverse literature, some texts focusing on medicine, sociology, religion and consumer culture the debate of spiritual appropriation and the link to identity and politics is made more explicit.

Esta tese é uma cartografia do dispositivo do neoxamanismo. Nela se mostra o processo de chegada de três diferentes tradições de neoxamanismo no Uruguai, que provém do Peru, Brasil e México: o vegetalismo amazônico, o Santo Daime e o Caminho Vermelho, respectivamente. Também descreve um quarto grupo neoxamânico uruguaio, independente dessas tradições, que toma elementos das mesmas. Analisa-se o neoxamanismo como um dispositivo, isto é, como um conjunto de discursos associados a uma imaginada espiritualidade indígena e umas práticas que giram em torno do uso de plantas de poder e da realização de rituais de busca espiritual e de cura. A cura é entendida enquanto expansão da consciência e “reconexão” com outras formas de estar no mundo, diferentes das modernas hegemônicas. Esta diferença se articula através da colocação em circulação de epistemologias outras, “nativas” do continente americano. O conjunto da tese levanta uma tensão, no marco do paradigma da modernidade/colonialidade, em torno da imbricação dos processos de (des)colonialidade que convergem no dispositivo do neoxamanismo. Observam-se alguns efeitos que o neoxamanismo produz e se propõe as ideias de amazonismo e de neo-orientalidade (para o Uruguai) para compreendê-los. / This thesis proposes a cartography of the neo-shamanism dispositif. It describes the process of arrival of three different neo-shamanic traditions in Uruguay: Amazonian vegetalismo, Santo Daime and Red Path, originating from Peru, Brazil and Mexico respectively. Furthermore it describes a Uruguayan neo-shamanic group, independent from these traditions, but which has adapted elements from them. The study analyses neo-shamanism as a dispositif, understood as a set of discourses, associated to an imagined indigenous spirituality, and practices relating to the use of power plants and the performing of rituals for spiritual quest and healing. The cure is understood as an Expansion of Consciousness and "reconnection" with other ways of being in the world, different from those of the modern hegemonic. That difference is articulated through the circulation of Other epistemologies, considered to be "native" originating from the American Continent. The overall thesis presents a tension, within the paradigm of modernity/coloniality, around the interweaving of processes of (de)coloniality converging on the neo-shamanism dispositif. Finally, it observes some effects produced by neo-shamanism and proposes understating these through the perspective of Amazonism and neo-orientalidad (in Uruguay). / Esta tesis es una cartografía del dispositivo del neochamanismo. En ella se muestra el proceso de llegada de tres tradiciones diferentes de neochamanismo al Uruguay, que provienen de Perú, Brasil y México: el vegetalismo amazónico, el Santo Daime y el Camino Rojo, respectivamente. Asimismo, describe un grupo neochamánico uruguayo, independiente de esas tradiciones, que toma elementos de ellas. Se analiza el neochamanismo como un dispositivo, es decir, un conjunto de discursos asociados a una imaginada espiritualidad indígena y unas prácticas que giran en torno al uso de plantas de poder y la realización de rituales de búsqueda espiritual y cura. La cura es entendida en tanto expansión de la conciencia y “reconexión” con otras formas de estar en el mundo, diferentes a las modernas hegemónicas. Esa diferencia se articula a través de la puesta en circulación de epistemologías otras, “nativas” del continente americano. El conjunto de la tesis plantea una tensión, en el marco del paradigma de la modernidad/colonialidad, en torno a la imbricación de los procesos de (de)colonialidad que convergen en el dispositivo del neochamanismo. Se observan algunos efectos que el neochamanismo produce y se proponen las ideas de amazonismo y de neo-orientalidad (por el Uruguay) para comprenderlos.

Esta tese é uma cartografia do dispositivo do neoxamanismo. Nela se mostra o processo de chegada de três diferentes tradições de neoxamanismo no Uruguai, que provém do Peru, Brasil e México: o vegetalismo amazônico, o Santo Daime e o Caminho Vermelho, respectivamente. Também descreve um quarto grupo neoxamânico uruguaio, independente dessas tradições, que toma elementos das mesmas. Analisa-se o neoxamanismo como um dispositivo, isto é, como um conjunto de discursos associados a uma imaginada espiritualidade indígena e umas práticas que giram em torno do uso de plantas de poder e da realização de rituais de busca espiritual e de cura. A cura é entendida enquanto expansão da consciência e “reconexão” com outras formas de estar no mundo, diferentes das modernas hegemônicas. Esta diferença se articula através da colocação em circulação de epistemologias outras, “nativas” do continente americano. O conjunto da tese levanta uma tensão, no marco do paradigma da modernidade/colonialidade, em torno da imbricação dos processos de (des)colonialidade que convergem no dispositivo do neoxamanismo. Observam-se alguns efeitos que o neoxamanismo produz e se propõe as ideias de amazonismo e de neo-orientalidade (para o Uruguai) para compreendê-los. / This thesis proposes a cartography of the neo-shamanism dispositif. It describes the process of arrival of three different neo-shamanic traditions in Uruguay: Amazonian vegetalismo, Santo Daime and Red Path, originating from Peru, Brazil and Mexico respectively. Furthermore it describes a Uruguayan neo-shamanic group, independent from these traditions, but which has adapted elements from them. The study analyses neo-shamanism as a dispositif, understood as a set of discourses, associated to an imagined indigenous spirituality, and practices relating to the use of power plants and the performing of rituals for spiritual quest and healing. The cure is understood as an Expansion of Consciousness and "reconnection" with other ways of being in the world, different from those of the modern hegemonic. That difference is articulated through the circulation of Other epistemologies, considered to be "native" originating from the American Continent. The overall thesis presents a tension, within the paradigm of modernity/coloniality, around the interweaving of processes of (de)coloniality converging on the neo-shamanism dispositif. Finally, it observes some effects produced by neo-shamanism and proposes understating these through the perspective of Amazonism and neo-orientalidad (in Uruguay). / Esta tesis es una cartografía del dispositivo del neochamanismo. En ella se muestra el proceso de llegada de tres tradiciones diferentes de neochamanismo al Uruguay, que provienen de Perú, Brasil y México: el vegetalismo amazónico, el Santo Daime y el Camino Rojo, respectivamente. Asimismo, describe un grupo neochamánico uruguayo, independiente de esas tradiciones, que toma elementos de ellas. Se analiza el neochamanismo como un dispositivo, es decir, un conjunto de discursos asociados a una imaginada espiritualidad indígena y unas prácticas que giran en torno al uso de plantas de poder y la realización de rituales de búsqueda espiritual y cura. La cura es entendida en tanto expansión de la conciencia y “reconexión” con otras formas de estar en el mundo, diferentes a las modernas hegemónicas. Esa diferencia se articula a través de la puesta en circulación de epistemologías otras, “nativas” del continente americano. El conjunto de la tesis plantea una tensión, en el marco del paradigma de la modernidad/colonialidad, en torno a la imbricación de los procesos de (de)colonialidad que convergen en el dispositivo del neochamanismo. Se observan algunos efectos que el neochamanismo produce y se proponen las ideas de amazonismo y de neo-orientalidad (por el Uruguay) para comprenderlos.

This dissertation applies anthropology analysis to study a specie of a tree frog, living in the northern Amazonia, called Kambo. The wax-like substance, which the frog releases upon irritation, is used for its healing potential around the world. A basic conceptual framework is used to analyse the frog from the perspective of modernity, globalisation, and diffusion of cultural dimensions. The dissertation anticipates their influences on multiple parties. The geographical scope of the dissertation is limited on Amazonia and the Czech Republic. Kambo is a host of numerous biochemical interactions; in addition, it is used in socio-material context; in rituals; for gaining, or circulation of experience; or it is part of various techniques of understanding oneself, as described in later works of Michel Foucault. Due to Kambo's alleged participation on creation of human's subjective thinking, the dissertation answers the question on the extent to which Kambo could be responsible, through ethnographic lens. The results show that for those respondents who were experienced Kambo users; using the substance as a potion for treating physiological and mental issues and who were subsequently influenced by New Age movement; Kambo stands as a milestone in their life trajectories. Through the ethnographic research,...

This diploma thesis deals with what one must do in order to become an ayahuasca neo-shaman, or what specific ayahuasca neo-shaman habitus one must acquire in order to be considered a neo-shaman and to be able to perform ayahuasca rituals. For this the author used methods of carnal ethnography and autoetnography. Ayahuasca rituals are embedded in a broader anthropological theory of rites of passage and are examined in the framework of carnal ethnography by the method of observed participation, while semi-structured interviews with neo-shamans are used also. As part of the autoetnography, the author experienced a neo-shaman habitus on himself, which allowed him to easily look into the otherwise non-transferable structure of the neo-shaman habitus. This research has shown that there are three key parts for the ayahuasca neo-shaman habitus, ie the "ecstatic", "didactic" and "material", but their forms are different for each neo-shaman, due to their specific life trajectories. The resulting ritual is then the product of the specific bricolage of each neo-shaman and mixes elements and techniques of different traditions and cultures. Keywords shaman, shamanism, neo-shaman, neo-shamanism, ayahuasca, habitus, carnal ethnography, autoetnography, ritual, rites of passage

The thesis discusses a category of cultural heritage that has been labelled "Sami circular offering sites", aiming to establish some basic facts about their origin, distribution and use, as well as their cultural and socio-political context and influence. The stone enclosures in question have been interpreted as Sami offering sites since the mid-19th century, but a discourse analysis of the research history indicates that this may have been based on a scholarly hypothesis rather than ethnographic or archaeological evidence. Furthermore it is questioned if all the structures that are currently included in this category are in fact remains of the same cultural practice. This is investigated through surveys of 81 suggested circular offering sites in Norway, two excavations and analyses of the find material. The large stone enclosures in counties Finnmark and Troms that were first categorised in this way prove to have quite consistent builds and measurements and a find material mainly dating between the 13th and 17th centuries. These structures are here labelled type 1. In contrast, constructions that have later been added to the category, particularly in other areas, have other and less consistent characteristics and seem to include remains of a range of different activities. They are here divided into two generic types 2 and 3. The thesis further discusses alternative interpretations for the type 1 structures, concluding that their materiality, construction, location, topography and finds are consistent with archaeological, historical and ethnographic evidence for wolf traps. Their distribution indicates a regional Sami cultural practice related to inland winter habitation and travel routes, while also apparently coinciding with the Russian/Karelian taxation area in northern Norway in the Middle Ages. Thus the builds may have been inspired by the fur trade or other activities of the latter groups. It is uncertain when exactly the installations fell into disuse, as datings are calibrated to AD 1450-1650. The abandonment could be related to the decline of Novgorod as a fur trade centre, Russian loss of taxation rights in northern Norway, increased Swedish impact in the inland areas and Norwegian activity along the coasts, which all led to changes in administration, taxation, trade patterns and demand for furs. The contemporary decimation of the wild reindeer population, increased reindeer herding and introduction of new weapons like crossbows, guns and foothold traps, may all have made permanent trapping installations less useful. The sites may, however, have gone out of use at different times. Certain finds of marrow split bones, very recent coins and other objects suggest a later reconceptualisation of some structures as offering sites, whether as a local explanation or inspired by the later scholarly definition. Throughout the thesis, the construction and distribution of the archaeological category and the preference for the ritual or religious interpretation are discussed as results of specific socio-political contexts, where stereotypical notions about Sami identity and culture have had a strong impact. The thesis explores how academic and other narratives influence each other within certain discourses of power and indigenous "rights and rites", and the continuous mutual impact on individual actions and emotions through networks of people, power and things. The present reinterpretation challenges existing academic and local narratives. It is based on the materiality of the structures, but the offering site explanation is not positively refuted. Yet, as part of an authorised heritage discourse, the present statement is more likely to impact future categorisation and practices than other narratives within other discourses, expressing a persistent and inherent power inequality. This may be ethically problematic in the context of an indigenous minority, but it may also be argued that the role of the archaeologist expert is precisely to expose the insisting materiality of the past and the power/knowledge networks that promote specific narratives about it.