In vitro liver models allow the investigation of the cell behavior in disease conditions or in response to changes in the microenvironment. A major challenge in liver tissue engineering is to mimic the tissue-level complexity: besides the selection of suitable biomaterial(s) replacing the extracellular matrix (ECM) and cell sources, the three-dimensional (3D) microarchitecture defined by the fabrication method is a critical factor to achieve functional constructs. In this study, coaxial extrusion-based 3D bioprinting has been applied to develop a liver sinusoid-like model that consists of a core compartment containing pre-vascular structures and a shell compartment containing hepatocytes. The shell ink was composed of alginate and methylcellulose (algMC), dissolved in human fresh frozen plasma. The algMC blend conferred high printing fidelity and stability to the core–shell constructs and the plasma as biologically active component enhanced viability and supported cluster formation and biomarker expression of HepG2 embedded in the shell. For the core, a natural ECM-like ink based on angiogenesis-supporting collagen-fibrin (CF) matrices was developed; the addition of gelatin (G) enabled 3D printing in combination with the plasma-algMC shell ink. Human endothelial cells, laden in the CFG core ink together with human fibroblasts as supportive cells, formed a pre-vascular network in the core in the absence and presence of HepG2 in the shell. The cellular interactions occurring in the triple culture model enhanced the albumin secretion. In conclusion, core–shell bioprinting was shown to be a valuable tool to study cell–cell-interactions and to develop complex tissue-like models.

Dans l’état actuel des techniques utilisées pour l’isolation gazeuse des systèmes d’énergie électrique à haute tension, l’hexafluorure de soufre (SF6) tient une place prépondérante en raison de ses performances diélectriques et chimiques (bonne tenue diélectrique, point d'ébullition bas, stabilité chimique, non toxicité, etc.) ; il est l’un des meilleurs isolants gazeux connus à ce jour. Il est principalement utilisé dans les appareils de coupure pour l’extinction de l’arc électrique, les lignes de transmission à isolation gazeuse et autres équipements de puissance. Cependant, de par sa taille excessive, sa durée de vie trop importante et son grand effet radiatif, la molécule de SF6 constitue un agent aggravant de l’effet de serre avec un potentiel de réchauffement global (PRG ou GWP en anglais) très élevé (23900 fois supérieur à celui du CO2). Ainsi, les recommandations internationales (COP3) et européennes (règlement (UE) n°517/2014) tendent à restreindre très fortement, voire interdire son utilisation pour préserver l’environnement. Depuis, une tâche importante a été engagée par les industriels pour trouver d’autres gaz ou mélanges de substitution avec moins d’impact sur l’environnement et des exigences diélectriques comparables ou supérieures à celles du SF6. Les candidats les plus prometteurs appartiennent tous au groupe des molécules poly-fluorées (CF3I, Perfluorinated Ketones, Octafluorotetra-hydrofuran, Hydrofluoroolefin (HFOs) ou heptafluoro-iso-butyronitrile(Fluoronitriles)), Ils offrent tous une tenue diélectrique entre 1.2 et 2.71 par rapport au SF6. Ces molécules candidates ouvrent des perspectives intéressantes pour la substitution de SF6 dans l’appareillage sous enveloppe métallique destiné pour le réseau T&D haute tension. Leur principal inconvénient réside dans leur masse moléculaire élevée, ce qui implique une température de fonctionnement plus élevée par rapport au SF6. Ce travail porte sur l’étude expérimentale des performances diélectriques des mélanges de Fluoronitriles-CO2. Les paramètres intrinsèques de l’avalanche électronique sont identifiés à partir des courants de la décharge stationnaire de Townsend. L’évaluation de ces courants a permis d’extraire le coefficient d’ionisation effectif pour différents mélanges de Fluoronitriles. Une comparaison du potentiel d’isolation de ces mélanges avec celui du SF6 pur, dans différentes géométries électrodes (sphère-plan, pointe-plan, sphère-sphère, système avec le profil de Bruce), sur une large gamme de pression et pour toutes les formes d'ondes de tension normalisées pour d'isolation est présentée. Les résultats de mesures de tensions de claquage de ces mélanges et du CO2 pur, pour comparaison, dans un système coaxial cylindrique de taille réelle, similaire à celui utilisé dans les postes à enveloppe métallique (GIS - Gas Insulated Switchgear), sont également présentés ; une étude de l’influence de la surface et de l’état de surface des électrodes sur la tenue diélectrique en fonction de différents paramètres (pression, rugosité, surface effective, forme de tension et polarité, température de gaz …) est faite. / SULPHUR hexafluoride, SF6, is the most common compressed gas used in high voltage power equipment since the 1950s and in HV transmissions and substations applications (GIS, GCB, GIL …), SF6 holds a prominent place because of its dielectric and chemical performance (high dielectric strength, non-toxicity, low condensation temperature, thermal stability, non-flammability, chemical inactivity with the other constituent materials of the apparatus, availability and moderate cost). It is one of the best insulators gas known today. Despite its excellent properties in both electrical insulation and current interruption performance, the excessive size, the radiative effect and atmospheric lifetime of SF6 molecule makes this gas an aggravating agent for the greenhouse gas effect, with a very high global warming potential (GWP) (23900 times higher than CO2). Thus, the international and European recommendations (COP 3) and (Regulation (EU) No 517/2014) respectively tend to strongly restrict or prohibit its use to preserve the environment. Since then, an important task was undertaken by manufacturers to find other gases or mixtures of substitution with less impact on the environment and dielectric performances comparable or superior to those of SF6. Naturally, the investigations were oriented towards halogenated products that have reduced GWP such as CF3I, Perfluorinated Ketones, Octafluorotetra-hydrofuran, Hydrofluoroolefin (HFOs) or heptafluoro-iso-butyronitrile (Fluoronitriles)), all offer a dielectric strength between 1.2 and 2.71 relative to SF6. These candidates open interesting perspectives for the substitution of SF6 in the GIS applications designed for high voltage T & D network. Their main disadvantage is their high molecular weight, which implies a higher operating temperature compared to SF6. This work deals with the experimental study of dielectric performance of Fluoronitriles CO2 mixtures. Intrinsic parameters of the measured steady state Townsend swarm currents are identified. The evaluation of the currents produce the effective ionization rate constant in different Fluoronitriles-CO2 mixtures. In addition, this work provides a conventional assessing of insulating performance with typical breakdown experiments, conducted for different field configurations over a wide pressure range and for all standard voltage waveforms. The experiments are conducted with different electrodes geometries namely plane-to-plane (Bruce profile), sphere-to-sphere, sphere-to-plane and rod-to-plane. AC and LI breakdown characteristics of CO2 and different Fluoronitriles /CO2 mixtures gas were experimentally analyzed in a real scale GIS coaxial test system. The main investigated parameters are the effect of roughness and effective surface area HV inner conductor on insulation performance, depending on various parameters (pressure, form and voltage polarity, gas temperature…).

[pt] Neste trabalho são analisadas junções entre guias coaxiais não homogêneos com perdas. A expansão modal dos campos eletromagnéticos em um guia coaxial com duas camadas radiais é detalhadamente deduzida, e posteriormente a formulação é generalizada para guias com multicamadas radiais. As constantes de propagação para guias com perdas são determinadas pelo método do winding number, garantindo que todos os autovalores possam ser encontrados. O método do casamento de modos é aplicado na análise e projeto de estruturas coaxiais. A formulação é aplicada na otimização de estruturas de acoplamento e cornetas radiantes com carregamento dielétrico não homogêneo. O preenchimento não homogêneo é empregado nas estruturas radiantes a fim de minimizar a perda de retorno, e principalmente controlar e melhorar o formato do diagrama de radiação para operação em banda larga. Adicionalmente, a formulação é utilizada para analisar a propagação eletromagnética em sistemas de telemetria sem fio para poços de petróleo. / [en] In this work, we analyzed junctions between coaxial waveguides heterogeneously filled with lossy dielectrics. The modal expansion of the electromagnetic fields in a coaxial waveguide with two radial layers is derived in detail, and afterward the formulation is generalized for a multilayer waveguide. The propagation constants for lossy waveguides are determined through the method of winding number, ensuring that all eigenvalues can be found. The mode matching technique is applied in the analysis and design of coaxial structures. The formulation is applied in the optimization of coupling structures and radiating horns with heterogeneous dielectric loading. The heterogeneous filling is used in radiating structures in order to reduce the return loss, and especially to control and improve the shape of the radiation pattern for broadband operation. Additionally, the formulation is used to analyze the electromagnetic propagation in wireless telemetry systems for oil wells.

The efficient and enhanced mixing of heat and incoming reactants is achieved in modern gas turbine systems by employing swirling flows. This is realized by a low velocity region (internal recirculation zone -IRZ) zone resulting from vortex breakdown phenomenon. Besides, IRZ acts as effective flame holder/stabilization mode. Double concentric swirling jet is employed in plethora of industrial applications such as heat exchange, spray drying and combustion. As such, understanding essential features of vortex breakdown induced IRZ and its acoustic response in swirling flow/flame is important in thermo-acoustic instability studies. The key results of the present experimental investigation are discussed in four parts. In the first part, primary transition (sub-critical states) from a pre-vortex breakdown (Pre-VB) flow reversal to a fully-developed central toroidal recirculation zone (CTRZ) in a non-reacting, double-concentric swirling jet configuration is discussed when the swirl number is varied in the range 0.592 S 0.801. This transition proceeds with the formation of two intermediate, critical flow regimes. First, a partially-penetrated vortex breakdown bubble (VBB) is formed that indicates the first occurrence of an enclosed structure resulting in an opposed flow stagnation region. Second, a metastable transition structure is formed that marks the collapse of inner mixing vortices. In this study, the time-averaged topological changes in the coherent recirculation structures are discussed based on the non-dimensional modified Rossby number (Rom) which appears to describe the spreading of the zone of swirl influence in different flow regimes. The second part describes a secondary transition from an open-bubble type axisymmetric vortex breakdown (sub-critical states) to partially-open bubble mode (super-critical states) through an intermediate, critical regime of conical sheet formation for flow modes Rom ≤ 1 is discussed when the swirl number (S) is increased beyond 0.801. In the third part, amplitude dependent acoustic response of above mentioned sub and supercritical flow states is discussed. It was observed that the global acoustic response of the sub-critical VB states was fundamentally different from their corresponding super-critical modes. In particular, with a stepwise increase in excitation amplitude till a critical value, the sub-critical VB topology moved downstream and radially outward. Beyond a critical magnitude, the VB bubble transited back upstream and finally underwent radial shrinkage at the threshold excitation amplitude. On the other hand, the topology of the super-critical VB state continuously moved downstream and radially outwards and finally widened/fanned-out at threshold amplitude. In the final part, transition in time-averaged flame global flame structure is reported as a function of geometric swirl number. In particular, with a stepwise increase in swirl intensity, primary transition is depicted as a transformation from zero-swirl straight jet flame to lifted flame with blue base and finally to swirling seated flame. Further, a secondary transition is reported which consists of transformation from swirling seated flame to swirling flame with a conical tailpiece and finally to highly-swirled near blowout ultra-lean flame. For this purpose, CH* chemiluminescence imaging and 2D PIV in meridional planes were employed. Three baseline fuel flow rates through the central fuel injection pipe were considered. For each of the fuel flow cases (Ref), six different co-airflow rate settings (Rea) were employed. The geometric swirl number (SG) was increased in steps from zero till blowout for a particular fuel and co-airflow setting. A regime map (SG vs Rea) depicting different regions of flame stabilization were then drawn for each fuel flow case. The secondary transformation is explained on the basis of physical significance of Rom.

[ES] La electrofisiología extracelular es una técnica ampliamente usada en investigación neurocientífica, la cual estudia el funcionamiento del cerebro mediante la medición de campos eléctricos generados por la actividad neuronal. Esto se realiza a través de electrodos implantados en el cerebro y conectados a dispositivos electrónicos para amplificación y digitalización de las señales. De los muchos modelos animales usados en experimentación, las ratas y los ratones se encuentran entre las especies más comúnmente utilizadas. Actualmente, la experimentación electrofisiológica busca condiciones cada vez más complejas, limitadas por la tecnología de los dispositivos de adquisición. Dos aspectos son de particular interés: Realimentación de lazo cerrado y comportamiento en condiciones naturales. En esta tesis se presentan desarrollos con el objetivo de mejorar diferentes facetas de estos dos problemas. La realimentación en lazo cerrado se refiere a todas las técnicas en las que los estímulos son producidos en respuesta a un evento generado por el animal. La latencia debe ajustarse a las escalas temporales bajo estudio. Los sistemas modernos de adquisición presentan latencias en el orden de los 10ms. Sin embargo, para responder a eventos rápidos, como pueden ser los potenciales de acción, se requieren latencias por debajo de 1ms. Además, los algoritmos para detectar los eventos o generar los estímulos pueden ser complejos, integrando varias entradas de datos en tiempo real. Integrar el desarrollo de dichos algoritmos en las herramientas de adquisición forma parte del diseño experimental. Para estudiar comportamientos naturales, los animales deben ser capaces de moverse libremente en entornos emulando condiciones naturales. Experimentos de este tipo se ven dificultados por la naturaleza cableada de los sistemas de adquisición. Otras restricciones físicas, como el peso de los implantes o limitaciones en el consumo de energía, pueden también afectar a la duración de los experimentos, limitándola. La experimentación puede verse enriquecida cuando los datos electrofisiológicos se ven complementados con múltiples fuentes distintas. Por ejemplo, seguimiento de los animales o miscroscopía. Herramientas capaces de integrar datos independientemente de su origen abren la puerta a nuevas posibilidades. Los avances tecnológicos presentados abordan estas limitaciones. Se han diseñado dispositivos con latencias de lazo cerrado inferiores a 200us que permiten combinar cientos de canales electrofisiológicos con otras fuentes de datos, como vídeo o seguimiento. El software de control para estos dispositivos se ha diseñado manteniendo la flexibilidad como objetivo. Se han desarrollado interfaces y estándares de naturaleza abierta para incentivar el desarrollo de herramientas compatibles entre ellas. Para resolver los problemas de cableado se siguieron dos métodos distintos. Uno fue el desarrollo de headstages ligeros combinados con cables coaxiales ultra finos y conmutadores activos, gracias al seguimiento de animales. Este desarrollo permite reducir el esfuerzo impuesto a los animales, permitiendo espacios amplios y experimentos de larga duración, al tiempo que permite el uso de headstages con características avanzadas. Paralelamente se desarrolló un tipo diferente de headstage, con tecnología inalámbrica. Se creó un algoritmo de compresión digital especializado capaz de reducir el ancho de banda a menos del 65% de su tamaño original, ahorrando energía. Esta reducción permite baterías más ligeras y mayores tiempos de operación. El algoritmo fue diseñado para ser capaz de ser implementado en una gran variedad de dispositivos. Los desarrollos presentados abren la puerta a nuevas posibilidades experimentales para la neurociencia, combinando adquisición elextrofisiológica con estudios conductuales en condiciones naturales y estímulos complejos en tiempo real. / [CA] L'electrofisiologia extracel·lular és una tècnica àmpliament utilitzada en la investigació neurocientífica, la qual permet estudiar el funcionament del cervell mitjançant el mesurament de camps elèctrics generats per l'activitat neuronal. Això es realitza a través d'elèctrodes implantats al cervell, connectats a dispositius electrònics per a l'amplificació i digitalització dels senyals. Dels molts models animals utilitzats en experimentació electrofisiològica, les rates i els ratolins es troben entre les espècies més utilitzades. Actualment, l'experimentació electrofisiològica busca condicions cada vegada més complexes, limitades per la tecnologia dels dispositius d'adquisició. Dos aspectes són d'especial interès: La realimentació de sistemes de llaç tancat i el comportament en condicions naturals. En aquesta tesi es presenten desenvolupaments amb l'objectiu de millorar diferents aspectes d'aquestos dos problemes. La realimentació de sistemes de llaç tancat es refereix a totes aquestes tècniques on els estímuls es produeixen en resposta a un esdeveniment generat per l'animal. La latència ha d'ajustar-se a les escales temporals sota estudi. Els sistemes moderns d'adquisició presenten latències en l'ordre dels 10ms. No obstant això, per a respondre a esdeveniments ràpids, com poden ser els potencials d'acció, es requereixen latències per davall de 1ms. A més a més, els algoritmes per a detectar els esdeveniments o generar els estímuls poden ser complexos, integrant varies entrades de dades a temps real. Integrar el desenvolupament d'aquests algoritmes en les eines d'adquisició forma part del disseny dels experiments. Per a estudiar comportaments naturals, els animals han de ser capaços de moure's lliurement en ambients emulant condicions naturals. Aquestos experiments es veuen limitats per la natura cablejada dels sistemes d'adquisició. Altres restriccions físiques, com el pes dels implants o el consum d'energia, poden també limitar la duració dels experiments. L'experimentació es pot enriquir quan les dades electrofisiològiques es complementen amb dades de múltiples fonts. Per exemple, el seguiment d'animals o microscòpia. Eines capaces d'integrar dades independentment del seu origen obrin la porta a noves possibilitats. Els avanços tecnològics presentats tracten aquestes limitacions. S'han dissenyat dispositius amb latències de llaç tancat inferiors a 200us que permeten combinar centenars de canals electrofisiològics amb altres fonts de dades, com vídeo o seguiment. El software de control per a aquests dispositius s'ha dissenyat mantenint la flexibilitat com a objectiu. S'han desenvolupat interfícies i estàndards de naturalesa oberta per a incentivar el desenvolupament d'eines compatibles entre elles. Per a resoldre els problemes de cablejat es van seguir dos mètodes diferents. Un va ser el desenvolupament de headstages lleugers combinats amb cables coaxials ultra fins i commutadors actius, gràcies al seguiment d'animals. Aquest desenvolupament permet reduir al mínim l'esforç imposat als animals, permetent espais amplis i experiments de llarga durada, al mateix temps que permet l'ús de headstages amb característiques avançades. Paral·lelament es va desenvolupar un tipus diferent de headstage, amb tecnologia sense fil. Es va crear un algorisme de compressió digital especialitzat capaç de reduir l'amplada de banda a menys del 65% de la seua grandària original, estalviant energia. Aquesta reducció permet bateries més lleugeres i majors temps d'operació. L'algorisme va ser dissenyat per a ser capaç de ser implementat a una gran varietat de dispositius. Els desenvolupaments presentats obrin la porta a noves possibilitats experimentals per a la neurociència, combinant l'adquisició electrofisiològica amb estudis conductuals en condicions naturals i estímuls complexos en temps real. / [EN] Extracellular electrophysiology is a technique widely used in neuroscience research. It can offer insights on how the brain works by measuring the electrical fields generated by neural activity. This is done through electrodes implanted in the brain and connected to amplification and digitization electronic circuitry. Of the many animal models used in electrophysiology experimentation, rodents such as rats and mice are among the most popular species. Modern electrophysiology experiments seek increasingly complex conditions that are limited by acquisition hardware technology. Two particular aspects are of special interest: Closed-loop feedback and naturalistic behavior. In this thesis, we present developments aiming to improve on different facets of these two problems. Closed-loop feedback encompasses all techniques in which stimuli is produced in response of an event generated by the animal. Latency, the time between trigger event and stimuli generation, must adjust to the biological timescale being studied. While modern acquisition systems feature latencies in the order of 10ms, response to fast events such as high-frequency electrical transients created by neuronal activity require latencies under $1ms$. In addition, algorithms for triggering or generating closed-loop stimuli can be complex, integrating multiple inputs in real-time. Integration of algorithm development into acquisition tools becomes an important part of experiment design. For electrophysiology experiments featuring naturalistic behavior, animals must be able to move freely in ecologically meaningful environments, mimicking natural conditions. Experiments featuring elements such as large arenaa, environmental objects or the presence of another animals are, however, hindered by the wired nature of acquisition systems. Other physical constraints, such as implant weight or power restrictions can also affect experiment time, limiting their duration. Beyond the technical limits, complex experiments are enriched when electrophysiology data is integrated with multiple sources, for example animal tracking or brain microscopy. Tools allowing mixing data independently of the source open new experimental possibilities. The technological advances presented on this thesis addresses these topics. We have designed devices with closed-loop latencies under 200us while featuring high-bandwidth interfaces. These allow the simultaneous acquisition of hundreds of electrophysiological channels combined with other heterogeneous data sources, such as video or tracking. The control software for these devices was designed with flexibility in mind, allowing easy implementation of closed-loop algorithms. Open interface standards were created to encourage the development of interoperable tools for experimental data integration. To solve wiring issues in behavioral experiments, we followed two different approaches. One was the design of light headstages, coupled with ultra-thin coaxial cables and active commutator technology, making use of animal tracking. This allowed to reduce animal strain to a minimum allowing large arenas and prolonged experiments with advanced headstages. A different, wireless headstage was also developed. We created a digital compression algorithm specialized for neural electrophysiological signals able to reduce data bandwidth to less than 65.5% its original size without introducing distortions. Bandwidth has a large effect on power requirements. Thus, this reduction allows for lighter batteries and extended operational time. The algorithm is designed to be able to be implemented in a wide variety of devices, requiring low hardware resources and adding negligible power requirements to a system. Combined, the developments we present open new possibilities for neuroscience experiments combining electrophysiology acquisition with natural behaviors and complex, real-time, stimuli. / The research described in this thesis was carried out at the Polytechnic University of Valencia (Universitat Politècnica de València), Valencia, Spain in an extremely close collaboration with the Neuroscience Institute - Spanish National Research Council - Miguel Hernández University (Instituto de Neurociencias - Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientí cas - Universidad Miguel Hernández), San Juan de Alicante, Spain. The projects described in chapters 3 and 4 were developed in collabo- ration with, and funded by, Open Ephys, Cambridge, MA, USA and OEPS - Eléctronica e produção, unipessoal lda, Algés, Portugal. / Cuevas López, A. (2021). Development of Advanced Closed-Loop Brain Electrophysiology Systems for Freely Behaving Rodents [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/179718 / TESIS

[ES] En los últimos años, se ha observado un crecimiento exponencial en los nuevos sistemas de comunicaciones, entre los cuales se destacan las comunicaciones inalámbricas y espaciales. Este fenómeno ha generado un incremento significativo en los requisitos de los sistemas de radiofrecuencia. Este aumento no solo se refiere a la respuesta eléctrica de dichos sistemas, sino también a otros parámetros de importancia, tales como el peso, el coste, el volumen y la integrabilidad con otras tecnologías. Con el propósito de cumplir con estos requisitos emergentes, los circuitos integrados en substrato, específicamente los denominados Circuitos Integrados en Substrato Vacío (Empty Substrate Integrated Circuits (ESIC)), se presentan como una solución altamente prometedora. Estos circuitos son reconocidos por su bajo coste, ligereza y facilidad de integración, preservando al mismo tiempo su eficacia en términos de respuesta eléctrica. La principal ventaja de esta tecnología radica en la capacidad de incorporar tanto componentes activos como pasivos, así como antenas, utilizando el mismo substrato o combinando varios de ellos mediante procesos de fabricación planar estándar. La naturaleza vacía de estos circuitos posibilita la implementación de componentes de alto rendimiento sin comprometer las características previas. En este contexto, la presente tesis doctoral se propone como objetivo central la investigación, diseño, desarrollo y fabricación de antenas y nuevos componentes de microondas utilizando tecnologías vacías integradas en substrato, con enfoque en aplicaciones para satélites de dimensiones reducidas. La tesis abordará la exploración de nuevos componentes de microondas comúnmente presentes en las cargas útiles de satélites, tales como filtros, transiciones entre tecnologías planares, divisores, entre otros, así como antenas, tanto como elementos individuales, y en agrupaciones. Estas investigaciones se realizarán en el marco de las mencionadas tecnologías emergentes, con la finalidad de lograr un grado de miniaturización, dispositivos altamente eficientes, y de bajo perfil manteniendo sus características esenciales y obteniendo respuestas mejoradas en comparación con soluciones previamente conocidas. La combinación global de los dispositivos y antenas propuestos en la tesis doctoral abre nuevas posibilidades en las tecnologías vacías integradas en substrato, contribuyendo potencialmente a mejorar la capacidad, robustez y compacidad de los sistemas de comunicaciones emergentes. / [CA] En els darrers anys, s'ha observat un creixement exponencial en els nous sistemes de comunicació, entre els quals destaquen les comunicacions sense fils i espacials. Aquest fenomen ha generat un increment significatiu en els requisits dels sistemes de radiofreqüència. Aquest augment no només es refereix a la resposta elèctrica d'aquests sistemes, sinó també a altres paràmetres d'importància, com ara el pes, el cost, el volum i la integrabilitat amb altres tecnologies. Amb la finalitat de complir amb aquests requisits emergents, els circuits integrats en substrat, específicament els anomenats Circuits Integrats en Substrat Buit (ESiC), es presenten com una solució altament prometedora. Aquests circuits són reconeguts pel seu baix cost, lleugeresa i facilitat d'integració, alhora que preserven la seva eficàcia en termes de resposta elèctrica. La principal avantatge d'aquesta tecnologia radica en la capacitat d'incorporar tant components actius com passius, així com antenes, utilitzant el mateix substrat o combinant-ne diversos mitjançant processos de fabricació planar estàndard. La naturalesa buida d'aquests circuits possibilita la implementació de components d'alt rendiment sense comprometre les característiques prèvies. En aquest context, la present tesi doctoral es proposa com a objectiu central la investigació, disseny, desenvolupament i fabricació d'antenes i nous components de microones utilitzant tecnologies buides integrades en substrat, amb un enfocament en aplicacions per a satèl·lits de dimensions reduïdes. La tesi abordarà l'exploració de nous components de microones comuns en les càrregues útils de satèl·lits, com ara filtres, transicions entre tecnologies planars, divisors, entre altres, així com antenes, tant com a elements individuals com en agrupacions. Aquestes investigacions es duran a terme en el marc de les esmentades tecnologies emergents, amb la finalitat d'assolir un grau de miniaturització, dispositius altament eficients i de baix perfil, mantenint les seves característiques essencials i obtenint respostes millorades en comparació amb solucions prèviament conegudes. La combinació global dels dispositius i antenes proposats en la tesi doctoral obre noves possibilitats en les tecnologies buides integrades en substrat, contribuint potencialment a millorar la capacitat, robustesa i compacitat dels sistemes de comunicació emergents. / [EN] In recent years, there has been an exponential growth observed in emerging communication systems, among which wireless and space communications stand out prominently. This phenomenon has led to a significant increase in the requirements of radiofrequency systems. This escalation pertains not only to the electrical response of such systems but also extends to other critical parameters, including weight, cost, volume, and integrability with other technologies. In order to meet these emerging requirements, integrated circuits on substrate, specifically those Empty Substrate Integrated Circuits (ESIC), emerge as a highly promising solution. These circuits are acknowledged for their low cost, lightweight nature, and ease of integration, while simultaneously preserving their effectiveness in terms of electrical response. The primary advantage of this technology lies in its capability to incorporate both active and passive components, as well as antennas, utilizing the same substrate or combining multiple substrates through standard planar manufacturing processes. The empty nature of these circuits enables the implementation of high-performance components without compromising their inherent characteristics. In this context, the central objective of this doctoral thesis is to investigate, design, develop, and manufacture antennas and new microwave components using empty substrate integrated technologies, with a focus on applications for small-scale satellites. The thesis will address the exploration of new microwave components commonly found in satellite payloads, such as filters, transitions between planar technologies, dividers, among others, as well as antennas, both as individual elements and in arrays. These investigations will be conducted within the framework of the aforementioned emerging technologies, aiming to achieve a degree of miniaturization, highly efficient devices, and low profile while maintaining essential characteristics and obtaining improved responses compared to previously known solutions. The collective integration of the proposed devices and antennas in this doctoral thesis opens up new possibilities in empty substrate integrated circuits, potentially contributing to enhancing the capacity, robustness, and compactness of emerging communication systems. / Herraiz Zanón, D. (2024). Antenas y componentes de microondas para satélites de dimensiones reducidas utilizando tecnologías vacías integradas en substrato [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/204589

Au niveau industriel, les capteurs électriques de mesure de la teneur en eau dans les solides sont généralement mono fréquentiel. La fréquence de fonctionnement est choisie arbitrairement. Par contre, la sensibilité de la teneur en eau dépend du type de matériau et des liaisons d’eau existantes. D’une part, la fréquence de relaxation diélectrique de l’eau à l’état liquide est située dans la bande des Micro-ondes. D’autre part, la fréquence de relaxation diélectrique de l’eau liée dépend du matériau mais elle est dans la bande des Radiofréquences. En se basant sur cette hypothèse, le but de cette thèse consiste à analyser la sensibilité fréquentielle vis-à-vis les liaisons d’eau dans les solides en utilisant comme un paramètre intermédiaire la permittivité diélectrique complexe. La première partie du travail a eu pour objectif de valider deux cellules de mesure de type capacitive et coaxiale développées au CETIAT pour mesurer les caractéristiques diélectriques. Les deux cellules de mesure ont été validées pour mesurer la permittivité diélectrique complexe des liquides, solides et des produits humides dans la bande [1 MHz – 2 GHz] et une comparaison avec l’outil EpsiMu® développé par l’Institut Fresnel a été réalisée.En deuxième phase, nous étudions expérimentalement des matériaux humides en couplant la caractérisation électromagnétique avec la méthode thermo-coulométrique qui permet de mesurer et de distinguer sélectivement les liaisons d’eau existante dans un solide.À l’issue de cette phase, une étude paramétrique sur les spectres diélectriques complexes a été réalisée pour identifier des sensibilités par rapport aux fractions d’eau existantes. / This thesis is part of a European research project called METfnet (Metrology for Moisture in Solids).In industry, the electrical sensors for measuring the water content in the solids are generally mono-frequency and the operating frequency is chosen arbitrarily.The sensitivity to the water content depends on the type of material and the existing water bounds. On the one hand, the dielectric relaxation frequency of water in the liquid state is located in the microwave band. On the other hand, the dielectric relaxation frequency of the bound water depends on the material, but it is known that it’s situated in the radio frequency band.Based on this hypothesis, the aim of this thesis is to analyze the frequency sensitivity with respect to water bonds in solids by using as an intermediate parameter the complex dielectric permittivity.In the first phase of the work, we validate metrologically two instruments: capacitive and coaxial, both of them are developed at CETIAT for measuring the dielectric constant. The two measuring cells were validated to measure the complex dielectric permittivity of liquids, solids and wet products in the [1 MHz - 2 GHz] band and a comparison with the EpsiMu® tool developed by the Fresnel Institute was carried out. In the second phase, we experimentally study wet materials by coupling electromagnetic characterization with the thermo-coulometric method, which selectively measures and distinguishes existing water bounding forms in a solid.At the end of this phase, a parametric study on the complex dielectric spectrum was carried out to lead to the identification of sensitivities with respect to the existing water fractions.

A slab-coupled optical fiber sensor (SCOS) falls into a narrow class of all-dielectric optical fiber electric field sensors, which makes it a perfect candidate for measurements of high electric fields in environments where presence of conductors is highly perturbing to the system under test. Its nonlinear response to high fields requires a new nonlinear calibration technique. A nonlinear calibration method is explained and demonstrated to successfully measure high electric fields, as well as high voltages with dynamic range up to 50 dB. Furthermore, a SCOS can be fitted into narrow spaces and make highly localized measurements due to its small size. This allows a SCOS to be integrated inside a standard high voltage coaxial cable, such as RG-218. Effects of partial discharge and arcing is minimized by development of a fabrication method to avoid introduction of impurities, especially air-bubbles, into the cable during SCOS insertion. Low perturbation of the measured voltage is shown by simulating the introduced voltage reflections to be on the order of –50 dB. It is also shown that a SCOS can be inserted into other cables without significant perturbation to the voltage. A complete high voltage and high electric field measurement system is built based on the high-voltage modifications of the SCOS technology. The coaxial SCOS is enhanced for robustness. Enhancements include packaging a SCOS into stronger ceramic trough, strengthening the fiber with kevlar reinforced furcation tubing and protecting the sensor with metal braces and protective shells. The interrogator is protected from electromagnetic interference with an RF-shielded box. Reduction in power losses introduced by the new PANDA-SCOS technology allows interrogator bandwidths to be increased up to 1.2 GHz. The whole measurement process is streamlined with dedicated software, developed specifically for high voltage and electric field measurements with support for the nonlinear calibration.

A slab-coupled optical fiber sensor (SCOS) falls into a narrow class of all-dielectric optical fiber electric field sensors, which makes it a perfect candidate for measurements of high electric fields in environments where presence of conductors is highly perturbing to the system under test. Its nonlinear response to high fields requires a new nonlinear calibration technique. A nonlinear calibration method is explained and demonstrated to successfully measure high electric fields, as well as high voltages with dynamic range up to 50 dB. Furthermore, a SCOS can be fitted into narrow spaces and make highly localized measurements due to its small size. This allows a SCOS to be integrated inside a standard high voltage coaxial cable, such as RG-218. Effects of partial discharge and arcing is minimized by development of a fabrication method to avoid introduction of impurities, especially air-bubbles, into the cable during SCOS insertion. Low perturbation of the measured voltage is shown by simulating the introduced voltage reflections to be on the order of −50 dB. It is also shown that a SCOS can be inserted into other cables without significant perturbation to the voltage.A complete high voltage and high electric field measurement system is built based on the high-voltage modifications of the SCOS technology. The coaxial SCOS is enhanced for robustness. Enhancements include packaging a SCOS into stronger ceramic trough, strengthening the fiber with kevlar reinforced furcation tubing and protecting the sensor with metal braces and protective shells. The interrogator is protected from electromagnetic interference with an RF-shielded box. Reduction in power losses introduced by the new PANDA-SCOS technology allows interrogator bandwidths to be increased up to 1.2 GHz. The whole measurement process is streamlined with dedicated software, developed specifically for high voltage and electric field measurements with support for the nonlinear calibration.

This thesis deals with the description and development of two classical turbulent shear flows, namely free jet and flat plate turbulent boundary layer flows. In both cases new experimental data has been obtained and in the latter case comparisons are also made with data obtained from data bases, both of experimental and numerical origin. The jet flow studies comprise three parts, made in three different experimental facilities, each dealing with a specific aspect of jet flows. The first part is devoted to the effect of swirl on the mixing characteristics of a passive scalar in the near-field region of a moderately swirling jet. Instantaneous streamwise and azimuthal velocity components as well as the temperature were simultaneously accessed by means of combined X-wire and cold-wire anemometry. The results indicate a modification of the turbulence structures to that effect that the swirling jet spreads, mixes and evolves faster compared to its non-swirling counterpart. The high correlation between streamwise velocity and temperature fluctuations as well as the streamwise passive scalar flux are even more enhanced due to the addition of swirl, which in turn shortens the distance and hence time needed to mix the jet with the ambient air. The second jet flow part was set out to test the hypothesis put forward by Talamelli & Gavarini (Flow, Turbul. & Combust. 76), who proposed that the wake behind a separation wall between two streams of a coaxial jet creates the condition for an absolute instability. The experiments confirm the hypothesis and show that the instability, by means of the induced vortex shedding, provides a continuous forcing mechanism for the control of the flow field. The potential of this passive mechanism as an easy, effective and practical way to control the near-field of interacting shear layers as well as its effect towards increased turbulence activity has been shown. The third part of the jet flow studies deals with the hypothesis that so called oblique transition may play a role in the breakdown to turbulence for an axisymmetric jet.For wall bounded flows oblique transition gives rise to steady streamwise streaks that break down to turbulence, as for instance documented by Elofsson & Alfredsson (J. Fluid Mech. 358). The scenario of oblique transition has so far not been considered for jet flows and the aim was to study the effect of two oblique modes on the transition scenario as well as on the flow dynamics. For certain frequencies the turbulence intensity was surprisingly found to be reduced, however it was not possible to detect the presence of streamwise streaks. This aspect must be furher investigated in the future in order to understand the connection between the turbulence reduction and the azimuthal forcing. The boundary layer part of the thesis is also threefold, and uses both new data as well as data from various data bases to investigate the effect of certain limitations of hot-wire measurements near the wall on the mean velocity but also on the fluctuating streamwise velocity component. In the first part a new set of experimental data from a zero pressure-gradient turbulent boundary layer, supplemented by direct and independent skin friction measurements, are presented. The Reynolds number range of the data is between 2300 and 18700 when based on the free stream velocity and the momentum loss thickness. Data both for the mean and fluctuating streamwise velocity component are presented. The data are validated against the composite profile by Chauhan et al. (Fluid Dyn. Res. 41) and are found to fulfil recently established equilibrium criteria. The problem of accurately locating the wall position of a hot-wire probe and the errors this can result in is thoroughly discussed in part 2 of the boundary layer study. It is shown that the expanded law of the wall to forth and fifth order with calibration constants determined from recent high Reynolds number DNS can be used to fix the wall position to an accuracy of 0.1 and 0.25 l_ * (l_* is the viscous length scale) when accurately determined measurements reaching y+=5 and 10, respectively, are available. In the absence of data below the above given limits, commonly employed analytical functions and their log law constants, have been found to affect the the determination of wall position to a high degree. It has been shown, that near-wall measurements below y+=10 or preferable 5 are essential in order to ensure a correctly measured or deduced absolute wall position. A  number of peculiarities in concurrent wall-bounded turbulent flow studies, was found to be associated with a erroneously deduced wall position. The effect of poor spatial resolution using hot-wire anemometry on the measurements of the streamwise velocity is dealt with in the last part. The viscous scaled hot-wire length, L+, has been found to exert a strong impact on the probability density distribution (pdf) of the streamwise velocity, and hence its higher order moments, over the entire buffer region and also the lower region of the log region. For varying Reynolds numbers spatial resolution effects act against the trend imposed by the Reynolds number. A systematic reduction of the mean velocity with increasing L+ over the entire classical buffer region and beyond has been found. A reduction of around 0.3 uƬ, where uƬ is the friction velocity, has been deduced for L+=60 compared to L+=15. Neglecting this effect can lead to a seemingly Reynolds number dependent  buffer or log region. This should be taken into consideration, for instance, in the debate, regarding the prevailing influence of viscosity above the buffer region at high Reynolds numbers. We also conclude that the debate concerning the universality of the pdf within the overlap region has been artificially complicated due to the ignorance of spatial resolution effects beyond the classical buffer region on the velocity fluctuations. / QC 20100820