An extensive body of empirical evidence indicates that function-based behavior support plans are likely to be more effective and efficient in school settings than plans that are not function-based. Designing technically adequate behavior support plans, however, is not sufficient to ensure that these plans will be implemented with fidelity by school staff. The contextual “fit” of support plan procedures with the values, skills, resources and administrative support of implementing personnel also affects the likelihood of implementation. In this dissertation a single-subject concurrent multiple baseline design across participants was used to examine the efficacy of the Contextual Fit Enhancement Protocol (CF Intervention). The CF Intervention was designed to improve the contextual fit of support plans for four elementary school students with problem behaviors. This CF Intervention was designed based on the assumption that when procedures included in a plan match the values, skills, administrative support and resources of the people responsible for implementation the plans will be implemented with higher fidelity and will be more likely to produce desired student outcomes. Results from the study indicate that after implementation of the CF Intervention, support plans that were already technically adequate improved in contextual fit: instructional staff (a) had a better understanding of behavioral procedures being used, (b) received specific, systematic feedback about its implementation, (c) perceived high levels of administrative support, and (d) perceived a collective commitment to improve current plans. Following implementation of the CF Intervention, substantial increases in implementation fidelity and decreases in student problem behavior were observed. In addition, teacher participants rated the CF Intervention process as effective and efficient. Limitations and implications for future research, practice, and training are discussed.

According to the literal interpretation, the crime of genocide is characterized by an individualistic intent to destroy a group, unlike other international crimes where contextual elements such as the need for plan or policy, or pattern of similar acts, or collective campaign and magnitude are explicitly required as constitutive elements. This thesis, therefore, examines whether ‘contextual elements’ are constitutive elements of the crime of genocide. In particular, it will examine the evolution and the current state of the definition of genocide, to determine the extent to which an individual génocidaire is required to act within a particular genocidal context. This thesis will examine and trace the historical development of the crime of genocide from its inception as an academic concept to the attainment of an autonomous legal character as a crime. It is argued that, during this period, the concept of genocide was akin to the current definition of crime as used in the social sciences. Hence, contextual elements were tacitly perceived and considered as a constitutive part of the concept; therefore, any reference to this period is of little help in the determination of the current status of the contextual element. In addition, it is found that upon codification of the notion of genocide, deliberate efforts were made to depart from the old concept by putting the subjective side of the crime at the centre. Thus, the thesis finds, on the basis of prevailing case law, that today’s dilemma over the crime of genocide originates from the difficulty to separate the concept from its past. This has led, in turn, to the existence of a vague and unsound legal stance on the contextual elements of genocide when the definition is applied to specific cases; therefore, the legal examination of the definition has produced an inconsistent approach bordering on illegitimate law making, especially in the cases of the ad hoc tribunals, by failing to balance the interpretation requirements on the one hand and the requirements of legality and consistency on the other. The thesis also establishes that the protracted debate for inclusion of the contextual elements as legal ingredients of the crime is sustained by this inconsistency. The thesis further evaluates the contextual elements in the light of the new regime of the Rome Statute and its ‘Element of Crimes’ which explicitly require the accused to act in a ‘context of manifested pattern of similar conduct’, but analysis of this requirement reveals that this is only a jurisdictional element to limit the case flow to the International Criminal Court. This research critiques the ‘contextual elements’ and the need for them and concludes with a new case for the assessment of this context as, first, a jurisdictional element and second, necessary on two other occasions: when alleging the existence of the crime of genocide in general and in cases of liability for participation and inchoate offences.

Questions pertaining to the unique structure and organisation of language have a long history in the field of linguistics. In recent years, researchers have explored cultural evolutionary explanations, showing how language structure emerges from weak biases amplified over repeated patterns of learning and use. One outstanding issue in these frameworks is accounting for the role of context. In particular, many linguistic phenomena are said to to be context-dependent; interpretation does not take place in a void, and requires enrichment from the current state of the conversation, the physical situation, and common knowledge about the world. Modelling the relationship between language structure and context is therefore crucial for developing a cultural evolutionary approach to language. One approach is to use statistical analyses to investigate large-scale, cross-cultural datasets. However, due to the inherent limitations of statistical analyses, especially with regards to the inadequacy of these methods to test hypotheses about causal relationships, I argue that experiments are better suited to address questions pertaining to language structure and context. From here, I present a series of artificial language experiments, with the central aim being to test how manipulations to context influence the structure and organisation of language. Experiment 1 builds upon previous work in iterated learning and communication games through demonstrating that the emergence of optimal communication systems is contingent on the contexts in which languages are learned and used. The results show that language systems gradually evolve to only encode information that is informative for conveying the intended meaning of the speaker - resulting in markedly different systems of communication. Whereas Experiment 1 focused on how context influences the emergence of structure, Experiments 2 and 3 investigate under what circumstances do manipulations to context result in the loss of structure. While the results are inconclusive across these two experiments, there is tentative evidence that manipulations to context can disrupt structure, but only when interacting with other factors. Lastly, Experiment 4 investigates whether the degree of signal autonomy (the capacity for a signal to be interpreted without recourse to contextual information) is shaped by manipulations to contextual predictability: the extent to which a speaker can estimate and exploit contextual information a hearer uses in interpreting an utterance. When the context is predictable, speakers organise languages to be less autonomous (more context-dependent) through combining linguistic signals with contextual information to reduce effort in production and minimise uncertainty in comprehension. By decreasing contextual predictability, speakers increasingly rely on strategies that promote more autonomous signals, as these signals depend less on contextual information to discriminate between possible meanings. Overall, these experiments provide proof-of-concept for investigating the relationship between language structure and context, showing that the organisational principles underpinning language are the result of competing pressures from context, cognition, and communication.

A amígdala participa dos processos de aprendizagem e memória de natureza emocional, incluindo os comportamentos aversivos. Essa estrutura compreende vários núcleos que estabelecem diferentes conexões com outras estruturas do sistema nervoso. Seu núcleo basal (BA) é um dos principais alvos amigdalares de informações processadas pelo hipocampo. Evidências apontam que o hipocampo seria responsável pela aprendizagem contextual, construindo uma representação integrada dos diferentes estímulos do ambiente numa representação única, denominada representação configuracional do contexto, que inclui também representações do espaço. Congruente com essa hodologia, lesões seletivas do BA resultam em prejuízos comportamentais similares aos encontrados após lesão hipocampal. Por exemplo, ratos com lesão no BA exibem deficiências na tarefa de medo condicionado ao contexto, mas não ao som, indicando que essa região está envolvida no processo de condicionamento aversivo contextual. Porém, não está claro se esse prejuízo decorre da participação do BA na aquisição e/ou evocação e expressão do medo contextual. Os objetivos do presente estudo incluíram avaliar, por meio da inativação reversível do BA, (1) se ele é necessário na aquisição do condicionamento aversivo ao som e/ou ao contexto e (2) qual a natureza da sua participação no condicionamento aversivo ao contexto, isto é, se é necessário para a construção do contexto, para sua associação com o estímulo aversivo e/ou para a evocação da memória e expressão das respostas condicionadas. Num primeiro experimento, muscimol foi infundido no BA antes do treinamento na tarefa de condicionamento aversivo concorrente ao som e ao contexto, e os testes de medo condicionado ao som e ao contexto foram realizados separadamente, na ausência de muscimol. Como esperado, os resultados revelaram prejuízo de desempenho na tarefa de medo condicionado ao contexto, mas não na tarefa de medo condicionado ao som. Num segundo experimento, muscimol foi infundido, em grupos independentes de animais, antes de cada fase da variante do condicionamento aversivo ao contexto que envolve facilitação pela pré-exposição ao contexto, a qual permite distinguir entre a construção configuracional do contexto (fase 1), sua associação com o estímulo aversivo (fase 2) e posterior evocação e expressão do medo condicionado (fase 3). Resultados mostraram que somente os ratos que receberam muscimol antes da fase 2, mas não os que receberam muscimol antes das fases 1 e 3, apresentaram prejuízo de desempenho na tarefa de medo condicionado ao contexto. No conjunto, esses resultados indicam que o BA participa do condicionamento aversivo ao contexto sendo imprescindível no processo de associação da representação configuracional do contexto com o estímulo aversivo, mas não nos processos de construção da representação sobre o contexto e nem de evocação da memória e expressão das respostas condicionadas de medo / The amygdala is involved in emotional learning and memory, including fear conditioning. This brain structure includes several nuclei with distinct hodology. The basal nucleus (BA) receives processed information from the hippocampal formation. Evidence indicates that the hippocampus integrates environmental stimuli in a single representation thus rendering it involved in contextual (including spatial) learning and memory. Congruent with this hodological evidence, selective damage to the BA results in behavioral impairments similar to those found after hippocampal damage. For instance, rats with BA damage exhibit performance impairments in contextual, but not auditory, fear conditioning tasks. However, it is not clear to which extent this disruption is related to the BA involvement in either acquisition of contextual fear or retrieval of memory and fear expression, or both. This study aimed at investigating, by way of reversible inactivation of the BA, (1) its involvement in acquisition of auditory and contextual fear conditioning, and (2) the nature of its participation in contextual fear conditioning, that is, if it is necessary for building a representation about the context, for associating the context with the aversive stimulus and/or for memory retrieval and expression of contextual fear conditioning. In the first experiment, muscimol was infused into the BA before training in a concurrent auditory and contextual fear conditioning task, and testing for auditory and contextual fear conditioning was run separately in the absence of muscimol. As expected, results revealed disruption of performance in the contextual, but not in the auditory, conditioning task. In the second experiment, muscimol was infused into the BA, in independent groups of animals, before each of the three phases of a contextual fear conditioning variant that involves context pre-exposure facilitation, thus allowing to evaluate if functional reversible inactivation of the BA interfered with (1) building an integrated representation of the environment (the context), (2) its association with the aversive stimulus, and/or (3) memory retrieval and expression of fear conditioning. Results showed that muscimol infusion into BA before phase 2, but not phases 1 and 3, impaired performance in the contextual fear conditioning task. Together, these results indicate that a functional BA is required for acquisition of contextual fear conditioning in order to establish an association between the context and the aversive stimulus, but not for building a context neither for memory retrieval and expression of fear conditioned responses

The thesis introduces contextual advertising on internet using Google AdWords. The paper describes individual steps of an ad campaign (product choosing, ad types, keywords), its management and success evaluation (calculation of ROI and modified ROI).

Submitted by Geyciane Santos (geyciane_thamires@hotmail.com) on 2015-06-22T14:20:17Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese - Klessius Renato Berlt.pdf: 972646 bytes, checksum: c127b522da4fc3719f61df80976a23ad (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Divisão de Documentação/BC Biblioteca Central (ddbc@ufam.edu.br) on 2015-06-24T13:07:06Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese - Klessius Renato Berlt.pdf: 972646 bytes, checksum: c127b522da4fc3719f61df80976a23ad (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Divisão de Documentação/BC Biblioteca Central (ddbc@ufam.edu.br) on 2015-06-24T13:07:02Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese - Klessius Renato Berlt.pdf: 972646 bytes, checksum: c127b522da4fc3719f61df80976a23ad (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Divisão de Documentação/BC Biblioteca Central (ddbc@ufam.edu.br) on 2015-06-24T14:44:22Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese - Klessius Renato Berlt.pdf: 972646 bytes, checksum: c127b522da4fc3719f61df80976a23ad (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-06-24T14:44:22Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese - Klessius Renato Berlt.pdf: 972646 bytes, checksum: c127b522da4fc3719f61df80976a23ad (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-12-19 / CNPQ - Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / In this work we address the problem of selecting keywords for contextual advertising systems in two di erent scenarios: web pages and short texts. We deal with the problem of selecting keywords from web pages using machine learning. While traditional machine learning approaches usually have the goal of selecting keywords considered as good by humans. The new machine learning strategy proposed drives the selection by the expected impact of the keyword in the nal quality of the ad placement system, which we name here as ad collection aware keyword selection (also referred in this work as ACAKS). This new approach relies on the judgement of the users about the ads each keyword can retrieve. Although this strategy requires a higher e ort to build the training set than previous approaches, we believe the gain obtained in recall is worth enough to make the ad collection aware approach a better choice. In experiments we performed with an ad collection and considering features proposed in a previous work, we found that the new ad collection aware approach led to a gain of 62% in recall over the baseline without dropping the precision values. Besides the new alternative to select keywords, we also study the use of features extracted from the ad collection in the task of selecting keywords. We also present three new methods to extract keywords from web pages which require no learning process and use Wikipedia as an external source of information to support the keyword selection. The information used from Wikipedia includes the titles of articles, co-occurrence of keywords and categories associated with each Wikipedia de nition. Experimental results show that our methods are quite competitive solutions for the task of selecting good keywords to represent target web pages, albeit being simple, e ective and time e cient. Besides selecting keywords from web pages we also study methods for selecting keywords from short texts. Short texts have became a very popular way users adopt for publishing content on the web. Every day, millions of users post their thoughts, needs and feelings on the Web through systems, such as social networks like Facebook and Twitter, or spaces for comments on news web sites. Much of these systems' revenue is from contextual advertising systems, thus selecting keywords in this new scenario raise as a new challenge. We propose and study a novel family of methods which uses the connectivity information present on Wikipedia to discover the most related concepts on each short textual unit. We also used the proposed methods as a new set of features on a Machine Learning Framework to boost the quality of the results obtained. We show that this approach presents a good performance and outperforms the best baselines by more than 35%. Finally, we apply the ACAKS approach on short texts and it yielded good results, outperforming a traditional machine learning approach by more than 80% in precision and 80% in recall. / Neste trabalho, nós estudamos o problema de seleção de palavras-chave para sistemas de publicidade contextualizada em dois diferentes cenários: páginas web e textos curtos. Nós lidamos com o problema de seleção de palavras-chave em páginas web utilizando aprendizado de máquina. Abordagens tradicionais baseadas em aprendizado de máquina geralmente possuem como objetivo selecionar palavras-chave consideradas como relevantes por um conjunto de usuários. Entretanto, a nova estratégia proposta nesse trabalho objetiva selecionar palavras-chave que gerem o melhor resultado na qualidade final do sistema de seleção de publicidade. A esta estratégia, nós demos o nome de ad collection aware keyword selection (também chamada de ACAKS). Esta nova abordagem baseia-se no julgamento dos usuário em relação às propagandas com as quais cada palavra-chave _e relacionada pelo sistema de seleção de publicidade. Apesar desta estratégia demandar um alto esforço para rotular o conjunto de treino em relação _as abordagens tradicionais, nós acreditamos que o ganho obtido em revocação é suficiente para fazer com que o ACAKS seja uma melhor alternativa. Nos experimentos que nós realizamos com uma coleção de anúncios e considerando as características propostas em um trabalho anterior, nós descobrimos que a nova abordagem proposta levou a um ganho de 62% em revocação em relação ao baseline utilizado sem perder precisão. Além desta nova alternativa para selecionar palavras-chave, nós estudamos ainda a utilização do conjunto de características estraída da coleção de anúncios para selecionar palavras-chave. Nós também apresentamos três novos métodos para extrair palavras chave de páginas web que não necessitam de treino e usam a Wikipédia como fonte externa de informação. A informação usada da Wikipédia inclui os títulos dos artigos, co ocorrência de palavras chave e categorias associadas com cada artigo da Wikipédia. Resultados experimentais mostram que nossos métodos são soluções competitivas para selecionar boas palavras-chave que representem bem o conteúdo de páginas web, enquanto se mantém simples eficientes. Além da seleção de palavras-chave de paginas web nós também estudamos métodos para selecionar palavras-chave em textos curtos. Textos curtos tem se tornado uma maneira muito popular que os usuários encontraram para publicar conteúdo na web. Todos os dias, milhões de usuários postam seus pensamentos, necessidades e sentimentos na web através de sistemas de redes sociais, como Facebook e Twitter, ou espaços para comentários em sites de notícias. Grande parte da renda destes sistemas _e proveniente de publicidade contextualizada, desta forma selecionar palavras-chave neste novo cenário surge como um novo desafio. Nós propomos e estudamos uma nova família de métodos que utiliza a informação de conectividade presente na Wikipédia para descobrir os conceitos mais relacionados em cada texto curto. Utilizamos também os métodos propostos como um novo conjunto de características em um Framework de aprendizado de máquina para melhorar a qualidade dos resultados obtidos. Nós mostramos que esta abordagem apresenta um bom desempenho e supera o melhor baseline em cerca de 35%. Finalmente, nós aplicamos a abordagem ACAKS em textos curtos e ele gerou bons resultados, superando uma abordagem tradicional baseada em aprendizado de máquina em cerca de 80% tanto em termos de precisão quanto revocação.

Submitted by Cristiane Chim (cristiane.chim@ucpel.edu.br) on 2017-02-09T11:47:21Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DOUGLAS ADALBERTO SCHEUNEMANN.pdf: 5931504 bytes, checksum: c30746e845003aab58ead827e2769fbd (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-02-09T11:47:21Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DOUGLAS ADALBERTO SCHEUNEMANN.pdf: 5931504 bytes, checksum: c30746e845003aab58ead827e2769fbd (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-12-01 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES# / #2075167498588264571# / #600 / The Internet of Things (IoT) has influenced the development of computational systems, enabling a more proactive interaction with users, expanding features as mobility and availability. In this scenario increases the demand for applications that can recognize the user’s context and can provide situation based services. The identification of situations is a research challenge for applications in the IoT, given the complexity of the relationships that must be established and processed. Data from several sources can be used for contextual processing, which can occur in multiple steps and involve different techniques based on specification, learning or hybrid models in which both are combined. The use of middleware is highlighted in the literature as a way of treating heterogeneous devices in the IoT and also to make more transparent the contextual processing for the applications. However, for a middleware be independent of the application domain is necessary to add in its architecture layers that allow the management of software components used in contextual processing and still allow the composition of different contextual processing flows. Considering this demand, the aim of this work is to design an architecture for management and composition of hybrid contextual processing flows to provide situation awareness for IoT applications. One of the premises of the architecture is its integration with the middleware EXEHDA (Execution Environment for Highly Distributed Applications). The evaluation of the architecture was done through two scenarios of use, one in the area of cardiac rehabilitation and another in the area of management of hospital environments. The results obtained were promising, pointing to the continuity of the research. / A Internet of Things (IoT) vem influenciando a maneira como os sistemas computacionais são desenvolvidos, possibilitando uma interação mais proativa com os usuários, expandindo características de mobilidade e disponibilidade. Nesse cenário, cresce a demanda por aplicações que possam reconhecer o contexto do usuário e fornecer serviços baseados em sua situação. A identificação de situações representa um desafio de pesquisa para aplicações em IoT, dada a complexidade das relações que precisam ser estabelecidas e processadas até que se obtenha informações no nível de abstração suficiente para a identificação das situações de interesse das aplicações. Dados de diversas fontes podem ser utilizados durante o processamento contextual, o qual pode ocorrer em múltiplas etapas e envolver diferentes técnicas, baseadas em especificação, aprendizado ou em modelos híbridos onde ambas são combinadas. O uso de middlewares é destacado na literatura como uma forma de tratar a heterogeneidade de dispositivos na IoT e também para tornar o processamento contextual mais transparente para as aplicações. No entanto, para que um middleware seja independente do domínio de aplicação é necessário acrescentar em sua arquitetura camadas que permitam o gerenciamento dos componentes de software aplicados no processamento contextual, e que possibilitem ainda a composição de diferentes fluxos de processamento contextual. Considerando esta demanda, o objetivo desta dissertação é a concepção de uma arquitetura voltada para o gerenciamento e composição de fluxos de processamento contextuais híbridos para prover ciência de situação para aplicações em IoT. Uma das premissas da arquitetura é a sua integração com o middleware EXEHDA (Execution Environment for Highly Distributed Applications). A avaliação da arquitetura foi feita através de dois cenários de uso, um na área de reabilitação cardíaca e outro na área de gerenciamento de ambientes hospitalares. Os resultados obtidos se mostraram promissores, apontando para continuidade da pesquisa.

Influence is the "ability to get others to do something they might not otherwise do" (Mowday, 1978, p. 146), and a literature has developed over the past three decades around proactive interpersonal influence tactics. Given (1) the importance of influence to all in society, (2) the significant gaps that exist in the literature on proactive influence tactics, (3) the empirical and theoretical acknowledgement of the pivotal role that contextual forces (i.e., precedent and history) can exert on organizational phenomena, and (4) the prevailing workforce and workplace trends that have highlighted the need to study this topic, the purpose of this dissertation is to examine how precedent impacts leaders, subordinates, and the proactive influence tactics that are employed across performance episodes and leadership successions in teams. In the leadership literature, complexity leadership theory (Uhl-Bien, Marion, & McKelvey, 2007) has identified the importance of contextual forces (i.e., history) on leadership processes. Similarly, in the teams literature, Ilgen, Hollenbeck, Johnson, & Jundt (2005) have outlined the IMOI framework of teams, which accounts for the non-linearity by which teams' inputs, processes/mediators, and outcomes can influence other future team stages across performance episodes. However, although both the leadership and teams literatures have recognized the importance of contextual forces, the difficulty in studying such factors has left these nascent theoretical perspectives under-explored, particularly in the literature on proactive influence tactics. Thus, this study represents an important undertaking because studying influence in teams without accounting for contextual forces limits our understanding of within-team phenomena. In particular, it is important to consider past precedent within an entity when trying to predict future individual-level behavior, influence processes, and outcomes within that entity. In proposing to demonstrate the impact of contextual forces on individuals and teams, I explore how a leader's use of influence tactics during an initial performance episode within a team impacts a subsequent leader's use of influence tactics during a subsequent performance episode within the team. Further, I explore boundary conditions for that relationship (e.g., prior team performance and team member individual differences). In addition, I study how the relationship between a leader's influence tactic use and subordinates' commitment to do what is asked of them is moderated by factors that stem from previous performance episodes within the respective team (e.g., prior role composition and subordinate perceptions of the current leader's effectiveness relative to the effectiveness of his or her predecessor). In order to study the dynamics of proactive influence in light of team precedent, I study project teams characterized by leadership successions that take place over time during a series of performance episodes. The series of hypotheses I have generated is tested in a multi-level moderated mediation research model using Mplus.

Introduction: Statistics show that a large number of companies struggle for their survival.About 20 % of the EU companies in all the different industries that were born in 2015 couldnot survive till 2016. More specifically, only less than half of the companies that were born in2011 are still active in 2016 (Eurostat, 2018). Moreover, corporate bankruptcies in Swedenincreased by 20 % in the years 2017 to 2018 compared to 2016 (Tillvaxtanalys, 2019 ).Therefore, the main challenge for managers is to consolidate short-term and long-termthinking, encourage visions while remaining focused on execution within employees. Problem background: While the current literature acknowledges both the importance oforganizational ambidexterity for companies’ survival, and the role played by managers todevelop ambidexterity, research on how to achieve such ambidexterity is still narrow.Moreover, the influence of the different leadership styles on contextual ambidexterity and itseffects on individuals have hardly been attended in the literature. Purpose: The purpose of this thesis is to develop an understanding on how leaders, throughambidextrous leadership styles, create a context that enables individuals to achieve contextualambidexterity. More specifically, this master’s thesis aims to define a conceptual frameworkthat shows the influence of the leadership styles on contextual ambidexterity Methodology: In order to answer our research question, a qualitative research was conductedwith a deductive approach. Eight Interviews, four managers and four employees, wereconducted in four project-based organizations within the software industry in Sweden. Findings: The key findings are that transformational leadership style was found to foster “trustand support” in social support, and “stretch” in performance management, while thetransactional leadership style was only found in discipline in the organizational context. Conclusions: This study shows how developing adaptability in an organization requiresmanagers to apply transformational leadership style to the social support dimensions of theorganizational context. On the other hand, developing alignment in an organization requiresmanagers to apply both transformation and transactional styles rather than transactional. Mangers also need to balance the intensity of their leadership styles as both styles need to be emphasized equally well.

Our purpose was to explore developmental changes in the organization and access to the mental lexicon between the ages of three-, five-, and seven years. Six-hundred and seventy three Mandarin-speaking participants listed all exemplars of animals and foods that came to mind within two one-minute intervals. Compared to younger participants, the older children demonstrated more correct responses and fewer errors, suggesting that they have greater knowledge of category-relevant vocabulary. They produced more subcategories, many of which involved embedding and overlapping, which suggests they have more sophisticated lexical-semantic organization. Also, they produced fewer and less closely spaced repetitions, suggesting they could more effectively monitor retrieval responses. We conclude that between the ages of three to seven, children expand and refine the organization of their mental lexicons. Improved monitoring may reflect growth in executive functioning.