The study sought to explore gender essentialism conceptually and empirically, and to specifically examine the concept of maternal essence as a framework for explaining gender difference. Gender, gender difference, gender essentialism, mothering and motherhood are individual fields of study however this thesis provides a sociological exploration of the intersections between these different fields. A selection was made of gender theorists: Simone de Beauvoir (1972), Shulamith Firestone (1970), Nancy Chodorow (1978, 1989, 1994) and Sara Ruddick (1989). I characterise these theorists as essentialist and analysed their contributions to explore their notions of gender difference. All four theorists commonly located gender difference in a maternal essence residing in individual women and their experiences. This essence was characterised as being biological, social or psychological. I came to the conclusion that women’s maternity was seen to be determined and reduced to biological essence (reproductive functions) or psychological essence (emotional drives and cognitive attributes) or social essence (mothering activity). All four theorists also read off micro social structural formations (family) from either individual biology or individual practice or individual psyche. In the writings of these theorists individuals are conceived of as discrete objects separated from the macro social structural context in which they exist. The study took the view that conceptions of gender can only be held to be true based on their power to represent social reality. To this end the study explored the extent to which the selected theorists’ notions of gender essentialism illuminate the social reality of individual men and women. Their essentialist conceptions of gender difference were subjected to empirical and/ or discursive examination against the maternal realities of women in South Africa. The study used data from already existing studies and policy, legislation and programmes from South Africa which report on findings and reflect notions of gender differences which are located in mothering and defined in women’s reproduction, mothering capacity and maternal practice/thinking. The empirical and discursive evidence examined in this study showed that the four theorists’ essentialist characterisation of gender difference is useful as it draws our attention to the significance of maternity for women’s individual experiences and identity as well as for society in general. However, the empirical and discursive evidence also revealed that external macro social structures, institutions and state discourse and practices influence the significance of maternity for women and society in general. The study therefore points to both the limits and the possibilities of essentialist notions, specifically maternal essence as an individual attribute, in explaining gender difference. This leads me to the view that there is a need for an approach that takes into account the complex, dialectical interaction between individual mothers and their social context to explain mothers’ experiences, behaviour, actions, capacities, attitudes, thinking, desires and activities. This study provides examples of how secondary empirical studies and policy discourse can be used to explore the usefulness of essentialist notions of gender difference. It offers a way in which the power of essentialist accounts of gender difference can be tested conceptually and empirically. It also provides evidence which can be used to extend investigations on essentialist notions of gender difference. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

The United States has the highest teen birth rate of any developed country in the world. In the period 2005-2010, the fertility rate for the United States was 41 births per 1,000 women ages 15-19, compared to 26 births in the United Kingdom, and 4 in Switzerland and The Netherlands. However, the teen birth rates in the United States vary considerably by race and ethnic group. National vital statistics data for 2009 report that the rate for Blacks is more than twice that of non-Hispanic Whites, and the rate for Latinas is almost three times as high. The difference within Latino groups is just as dramatic. The adolescent fertility rate per 1,000 for Cubans is 23.5, while for Puerto Ricans it is 61.67, and for Mexicans the rate is 78.7. Teen pregnancy and childbearing in the Mexican American population are issues of great concern because this ethnic group is the fastest growing population in the United States. The literature on teen childbearing among Latinos, and specifically among Mexican origin teens, tends to attribute the high rates to cultural differences. In this dissertation, I argue that the high rates of teen pregnancy cannot properly be attributed to "cultural" characteristics. Instead, I develop falsifiable hypotheses that are derived from theoretical frameworks which recognize the relationship between racial inequalities and teen fertility. I first test the social characteristics hypothesis to determine the effect that income and parents? education have on teen fertility. Second, I test if other characteristics such as religiosity, type of religion and views on teen pregnancy have an impact on predicting the odds of having a teen birth. Third, drawing on demographic literature, I ascertain whether educational experiences and aspirations to attend college are critical factors in predicting a teen birth. Last, I test if having a teen birth has the same impact for Mexican origin teens compared to Whites in terms of being able to obtain a college degree.

Using data from the 2013 American Community Survey, the author examines the wage returns to same-sex parenthood and their role in the sexual orientation wage gap. Specifically, he compares individuals by gender, sexual orientation, and household earner status. The importance of accounting for household specialization among heterosexual men and women is illustrated by the significant differences in returns to parenthood between heterosexuals of the same gender, but different earner statuses. The empirical results show that gay men face a fatherhood penalty for the presence of children between the ages of 5 and 18 irrespective of earner status. Lesbians on the other hand, experience motherhood premiums for the presence of children under the age of 5, but modest motherhood penalties for the presence of children between the ages of 5 and 18. Ultimately, differences in the wage returns to parenthood for gays, lesbians, and their respective heterosexual counterparts play a negligible role in sexual orientation wage differentials.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the stress experienced by teenage mothers attending school and the need for multi-faced and strength-based stress management programs. Trends of teenage pregnancy in developing and developed countries are looked at. Causes and consequences of teenage motherhood stress are also explored. One of the consequences of teenage motherhood is stress. There are programs aimed at alleviating stress of teenage motherhood. Some of these programs are evaluated. The findings of this study indicate that there is a need for multi-faced and strength-based interventions for teenage mothers. After the literature study, an empirical research was conducted to explore challenges faced by teenage mothers. Data was collected by means of semi-structured interviews with ten teenage mothers attending school and ten educators teaching teenage mothers. Collected data was analysed using the thematic data analysis approach. The major findings of the study include opinions that teenage mothers do not get assistance from school, home and in the community; teenage mothers are not ready for motherhood; they experience a feeling of vulnerability and poor performance at school. There is a need for educators to be trained in handling teenage mothers, as well as the need for multi-faceted and strength-based interventions. However, it was evident through empirical research that some teenage mothers cope with their lives through talking to caring parents, spending quality time with their children, having a vision, keeping themselves busy and accepting that having a child while attending school is a challenge. Lastly, conclusions from the literature study and empirical research are presented in chapter five. Recommendations for practice, the contribution of the study, limitations of the study and recommendations for further study are also detailed. Motivation for designing and implementing intervention programs is also outlined. / Thesis (MEd (Learner Support))--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2013

Surrogacy motherhood provides an option for infertile couples to have a genetically related child of their own. However, in jurisdictions where surrogacy motherhood are not legally accepted, couples deliberately turn to other jurisdictions to conclude a surrogacy agreement where it is in fact legal to do so. When different jurisdictions are involved in one surrogacy motherhood agreement, several problems arise, especially due to the lack of regulation on an international level. These poblems must therefore be resolved by the implementation of an international document or agreement. This discussion will therefore firstly focus on the national position regarding surrogacy motherhood in the South African content to determine whether South Africa will benefit from the implementation of a proposed international document or agreement. Secondly, the research focus on international surrogacy and evaluate the concept to identify the problems arising as a result thereof. Thirdly, the contents of the proposed international document or agreement will be discussed in depth in order to determine what the contents of the document or agreement should include. The aim of the research is to determine which issues and problems should be included in the proposed document or agreement in order to effectively regulate international surrogacy. / LLM (Comparative Child Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Surrogacy motherhood provides an option for infertile couples to have a genetically related child of their own. However, in jurisdictions where surrogacy motherhood are not legally accepted, couples deliberately turn to other jurisdictions to conclude a surrogacy agreement where it is in fact legal to do so. When different jurisdictions are involved in one surrogacy motherhood agreement, several problems arise, especially due to the lack of regulation on an international level. These poblems must therefore be resolved by the implementation of an international document or agreement. This discussion will therefore firstly focus on the national position regarding surrogacy motherhood in the South African content to determine whether South Africa will benefit from the implementation of a proposed international document or agreement. Secondly, the research focus on international surrogacy and evaluate the concept to identify the problems arising as a result thereof. Thirdly, the contents of the proposed international document or agreement will be discussed in depth in order to determine what the contents of the document or agreement should include. The aim of the research is to determine which issues and problems should be included in the proposed document or agreement in order to effectively regulate international surrogacy. / LLM (Comparative Child Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The object of this essay is to map the discourses of good versus bad mothering in four selected novels by Marian Keyes, and to analyze how they relate to hegemonic Western discourses of motherhood.  The analytical approach is based on Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe’s discourse theory. In the essay I identify six central discursive structures in Keyes’ fictive representation of good and bad mothering. The explored structures deal with the proper social conditions for mothering, the mother’s unique role and function, mothering and professional pursuits, the rejection of children, depression and aggression in the mother, and mothering and substance abuse. They are described and contextualized with the aid of Laclau and Mouffe’s terminology and perspective on discursive struggle. The conclusion is that Keyes’ literary discourse connects good mothering with sustained maturing and individuality in the mother, while suggesting that bad mothering is related to relinquished integrity and personal potential.

The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate the effect of a prenatal hypnotherapeutic programme on the maintenance and promotion of postpartum psychological well-being of a group of first-time mother. Relevant literature on pregnancy, early motherhood and psychological well-being were explained in order to abstract important facets and perspectives to use as a background for the development and implementation of an intervention programme for the facilitation of psychological well-being of first-time mothers. Theoretical perspectives on, and practical applications of, clinical hypnosis were further analysed and used as foundation for the development of the hypnotherapeutic intervention. A hypnotherapeutic programme was developed, based on existing theoretical knowledge regarding pregnancy, childbirth and early motherhood, as well as clinical hypnosis, with specific emphasis on Ericksonian principles and ego state therapy techniques, enriched from the perspective of psychofortology. The empirical study consisted of a quantitative component and a qualitative component. In the quantitative component, a pretest-posttest-follow-up comparative design was implemented, with random assignment of participants to the experimental and control groups within the limits of practicalities. Both groups, each consisting of 23 women in their first pregnancy, completed the following questionnaires: (i) Perception of Labour and Delivery Scale (PLD), adapted from Padawer et al. (1988). Feelings about the baby and relationship with the baby (FRB), adapted from Wwllett and Parr (1997), Maternal Self- Confidence Scale (MSC), adapted from Ruble et al. (1990) and Maternal Self-Efficacy Scale (MSE) (Teti & Gelfand, 1991), to explore aspects of psychological well-being related to early motherhood; (ii) The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) ofCox et al. (1987) and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) (Goldberg & Hillier, 1979), to investigate aspects of psychological well-being as evident by the absence of pathology; and (iii) the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) (Diener et al., 1985), the Affectometer 2 (AFM) (Kammann & Flett, 1983), the Sense of Coherence Scale (SOC) of Antonovsky (1979) and the Generalised Self-efficacy Scale (GSE), developed by Schwarrer, (1993), to measure general psychological well-being. The Stanford Hypnotic Clinical Scale (SHCS) (Morgan & Hilgard, 1978) was used for the experimental group to assess hypnotisabili. The qualitative component consisted of in-depth interviews and an analysis of written responses of mothers in the experimental group. They commented on their experience of the programme and its impact at two weeks and ten weeks postpartum. Results from the empirical study indicated that the experimental group showed significantly more symptoms of depression and symptomatology during the prenatal evaluation than the control group. Since the experimental group was possibly more vulnerable than the control group in a psychological sense, the effect of the intervention programme could not be deduced from a pure comparison of postnatal evaluation scores between the groups. Therefore, it was decided to explore the significance of differences within each of the experimental and control groups, as well as between the experimental and control group, using the mean difference scores between prenatal and postnatal evaluation on each variable. Results indicate that the hypnotherapeutic programme was effective in enhancing most aspects of psychological well-being within the experimental group. This strengthened sense of psychological well-being was evident both in the immediate postpartum period and at ten weeks postpartum. The control group showed a spontaneous increase in psychological well-being later in the postpartum period. The programme thus assisted mothers in the more vulnerable experimental group to experience a stronger sense of psychological well-being sooner after the baby's birth. The experimental and control groups were further compared on the mean differences in prenatal versus postnatal scores on measures of psychological well-being. The results suggest that the hypnotherapeutic intervention contributed to an enhanced sense of psychological well-being in mothers in the experimental group, in comparison to the control group, during the early postpartum period, as measured by variables related to motherhood, absence of pathology and general psychological well-being. At ten weeks postpartum, the differences between the experimental and control group were less obvious. However, a very important finding was that mothers in the experimental group continued to show a significant improvement in psychological well-being as indicated by the absence of pathology. Specifically, there was a continued decrease in depression and general symptoms of pathology. Findings from the quantitative study were supported by remarks by mothers in postpartum and follow-up interviews, as well as their written responses, as part of a qualitative exploration of their experience of the programme and its impact on them. The findings give compelling evidence that a hypnotherapeutic intervention, focusing on the enhancement of strengths and inner resources, could alleviate depression and psychological distress during the perinatal period, as well as prevent the exacerbation of symptoms. Findings from the current study indicate that the developed prenatal hypnotherapeutic programme was effective in enhancing the psychological well-being of mothers experiencing a first pregnancy. Recommendations for clinical practice and further research were made, based on the current research findings. The contribution of the current study lies in the fact that it is the first to explore pregnancy, childbirth and early motherhood from a salutogenidfortigenic perspective, and to utilise hypnosis to facilitate psychological well-being in this context. It contributed to scientific knowledge in the fields of developmental psychology, psychofortology and clinical hypnosis. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Psychology))--Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, 2003.

Background: Low birth weight (LBW) is a public health issue in the United States and around the globe. Although Low birth weight is an important predictor of subsequent health outcomes, the role of maternal age as a LBW risk factor is poorly understood. Determining whether or not maternal age is a risk factor for low birth weight can help reduce the incidence of LBW and maximize the health of offspring. Objective: This study examined the association between young mothers and LBW risk in a representative sample of Non-Hispanic Whites, Non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanic American women. Factors such as mother’s age, smoking status, level of education, income, and marital status were evaluated to assess their associations with LBW outcome. Methodology: The selected study factors were analyzed using SPSS version 20. Data were obtained from the 2007-2008 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Young mothers were defined as females between the ages of 14 and19 years old that have a baby. A live born infant weighing less than 2,500 grams was considered to have LBW. Frequencies for the selected factors were created. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were also run to examine the association between young motherhood and LBW adjusting for maternal age, smoking, education, income and marital status. Results: There was no statistically significant association between young mothers and LBW in Non-Hispanic Whites (OR=.51; 95% CI=.12-2.13), Non-Hispanic Blacks (OR=.21; 95% CI=.03-1.59), and Hispanic Americans (OR=1.48; 95% CI=.74-2.97) women, after adjusting for maternal age, smoking, education, income and marital status. Conclusion: Although, the results of this study indicating the lack of association between young mothers and LBW is consistent with findings by some investigators (Reichman et al., 1997), there are several studies that have reported contrary results (Okosun et al., 2000). In light of these mixed findings, further research is necessary to examine the impact of young mothers on adverse birth outcomes, including, LBW.

Parenting is a primary role for many young breast cancer survivors and the combined effect of parenting while coping with this disease can be problematic for many of them. Despite this, little is known about the impact of parenting on the well-being of young breast cancer survivors. This thesis, comprising two studies in article format, explores this question. In the first study, we identified elements of well-being that are salient for all young women with breast cancer, and which also captured some of the unique challenges associated with parenting as a survivor. Using factor analysis techniques, we determined how these elements interrelated in separate groups of young survivors with children and without, and identified differences between the two groups based on the patterns observed. We found that the interrelationship among elements of well-being varied between these two groups: psychological distress (representing mental health and perceived stress), illness intrusiveness, and fear of cancer recurrence were found to co-occur more frequently in mothers than in young survivors without children, thus compromising their well-being. Our second study had two objectives. The first part examined differences in perceived stress, illness intrusiveness, and fear of cancer recurrence between young breast cancer survivors with and without children in two separate timeframes (0-5 and 5-15 years since diagnosis). The second part identified predictors for these elements of well-being in young mothers exclusively. Compared to survivors without children, young mothers reported higher levels of fear of cancer recurrence and illness intrusiveness in intimate life domains during both timeframes, suggesting that disruptions in these areas persist over time. Part two revealed that mothers with adolescent children and high levels of parenting stress were most likely to report perceived stress and illness intrusiveness. A mother’s age and the time since her diagnosis predicted fear of cancer recurrence and illness intrusiveness, respectively. Results from this thesis indicate that young mothers with breast cancer need screening and interventions to manage psychological distress, fear of cancer recurrence, and illness intrusiveness, particularly in intimate life domains. This thesis also identifies the most vulnerable groups of mothers and has important implications for future research.