Toxoplasma gondii, the causal agent of toxoplasmosis, is an important water and food borne protozoan parasite. T. gondii was previously shown to have a distinct clonal population structure composed of Type I, II and III lineages in North America and Europe. But more recent studies demonstrated high diversity in South America. In the present project we have conducted an intensive study of the population diversity of T. gondii and surveyed the extent of genetic variation among natural T. gondii isolates on a global scale in order to better understand the population dynamics and pathogenesis of this parasite. To this end, 948 T. gondii isolates have been collected from a broad range of animal hosts and different sites worldwide. Our initial multilocus PCR-RFLP genotyping analysis revealed high diversity (~140 distinct genotypes) with abundant unique genotypes in South America and a strong clonal population structure in North America, Europe, Asia and Africa. It also showed that the Type II is the most common lineage worldwide, followed by the type III strain. The Type I strain, though widely distributed, has been infrequently isolated. Several new clonal genotypes have been identified from South America. The newly identified 140 RFLP genotypes have been further analyzed by multilocus microsatellites and intron sequencing methods. The composite data set identified 11 different haplotypes, providing a framework for future study of molecular epidemiology and population genetics of T. gondii . Multilocus DNA sequencing of markers from each of the 14 chromosomes covering the entire genome has also been completed to help reveal more information about genome evolution and the origin of T. gondii . Taken together, this comprehensive epidemiological and population genetic study has revealed significant details on the diversity and extent of sexual recombination, which provides the basis for future studies to understand transmission patterns, population dynamics and origin of this successful apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Chicago, Committee on Immunology, June 2003. / Includes bibliographical references. Also available on the Internet.

AbstractFive bacteria, Escherichia coli, Serratia marcescens, Bacillus subtilis,, Bacillus cereus, and Sarcina flava, were tested for establishment in the yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor, using a fluorescent screening technique. Through literature research some of the above bacteria were known to establish in the mealworm.The various test bacteria were dyed with Calcofluor white, a fluorescent dye, and introduced to the mealworm by several techniques. Oral injection, anal injection, drop on head, and petri dish methods were attempted. The best method of bacterial entry into the insect was found to be the drop on head. Since few bacteria were ingested by the insect, a quantitative analysis was impossible.It was found that as the dyed bacteria grew, fluorescence decreased. This was substantiated by allowing dyed Sarcina flava to grow at 37 degrees C. in nutrient broth and examining every hour for ten hours.Although this study did not show a definite screening technique for bacterial establishment in Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus, the results from this project could aid researchers in developing such a technique.Ball State UniversityMuncie, IN 47306

Los virus de influenza aviar de alta patogenicidad (IAAP) causan una enfermedad muy severa en pollos, los cuales frecuentemente inducen lesiones en el sistema nervioso central (SNC). Esta tesis recoge los resultados de tres estudios que se llevaron a cabo para determinar el mecanismo de patogénesis y neurotropismo, así como establecer la ruta de entrada al SNC para un virus H7N1 IAAP. En el primer estudio se estableció un modelo animal de infección en pollos libres de patógenos específicos, que consistía en la inoculación intranasal con el virus H7N1 IAAP. Para establecer este modelo, se utilizaron tres diferentes dosis del virus, obteniendo que las dosis más altas producen una enfermedad similar a la reportada para otros virus de IAAP. Además, se observó que las dosis más bajas causan infección demostrada porque con las dosis más bajas, el virus es hallado en muestras de tejido, muestras de heces y secreciones respiratorias. Adicionalmente, se pudo comprobar el alto neurotropismo del virus, ya que aún en pollos inoculados con bajas dosis el RNA viral es hallado en el CNS. La viremia fue detectada a un día post infección (dpi), sugiriendo que está podría ser la vía de diseminación al SNC. En el segundo estudio, se determinó la distribución topográfica del antígeno viral en el SNC durante las primeras horas post infección, lo cual permitió determinar que el virus se disemina de forma simétrica y bilateral en núcleos neurales del diencéfalo, mesencéfalo y rombencéfalo. La distribución del antígeno viral indica que el bulbo olfatorio y los nervios periféricos están involucrados en el proceso de invasión del SNC. El hallazgo de receptores aviares y humanos en las células endoteliales explica porque estas células son tan sensibles a la infección. El RNA viral fue hallado en el líquido cerebro espinal el primer dpi, lo que indica que el virus atraviesa la barrera hemato-encefálica (BHE). En el tercer estudio, la alteración de la BHE inducido por el virus H7N1 IAAP fue demostrado usando tres diferentes métodos que incluye la perfusión intracardial de Azul de Evans, la detección de la extravasación de la proteína del suero IgY, y evaluación del patrón de tinción con el marcador de las uniones fuertes de la BHE, ZO-1 y claudin-1. El antígeno viral fue observado a las 24 hpi en las células endoteliales, mientras que el daño de la BHE fue observado a las 36 hpi y 48 hpi. En resumen, se puede afirmar que el virus H7N1 IAAP se disemina por la vía hematógena durante las primeras horas pi, posiblemente favorecido por la presencia de receptores en las células endoteliales del sistema nervioso central, y poco después daña la BHE durante las primeras horas de infección como se demuestra por la presencia de extravasación del azul de Evans and IgY del suero. / Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIV) cause a very severe systemic disease in chickens, in which is also frequent to find central nervous system (CNS) lesions. In this thesis, three studies were undertaken in order to determine the mechanism of pathogenesis, the neurotropism and establish the route of entry into the CNS use for a H7N1 HPAI virus. In the first study, an animal model was set up that consisted of SPF chickens inoculated intranasally with the H7N1 HPAI virus. To do that, three different doses were used, obtaining that the highest dose induced a disease similar to the produce by other HPAI viruses, moreover, it was also observed that very low doses also cause infection demonstrated because viral RNA was found in tissues samples, faeces and respiratory secretions. Besides, the high neurotropism of this virus was demonstrated because still in chickens inoculated with low doses, viral RNA is found in the brain. Viremia was detected at one dpi, which indicated that the bloodstream is the pathway of viral spreading to the brain. In the second study, the topographical distribution study of the viral antigen during the first dpi was determined, which allow to determine that the virus disseminates showing a symmetrical and bilateral pattern in the diencephalon, mesencephalon and rhombencephalon, whereas in the telencephalon and cerebellum it was multifocal and random. Viral antigen distribution indicates that the olfactory bulb (OB) and peripheral nerves are not involved in the process of virus invasion into the brain. Avian and human influenza receptors were found in endothelial cells which explain why these cells are so sensitive to the infection. Viral RNA was found in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) at one dpi, indicating that the virus was able to cross blood brain barrier (BBB). In the third study, the disruption of the BBB induce by the H7N1 HPAI was demonstrated using three different methods that include the intracardial perfusion of the tracer Evans blue (EB), detection of the extravasation serum IgY, and evaluation of the pattern of staining of the tight junction proteins ZO-1 and claudin-1. Viral antigen can be observed as early as 24 hpi in the endothelial cells, whereas disruption was detected at 36 and 48 hpi. In summary, it can be asserted that this H7N1 HPAIV disseminates via the haematogenous route early during the infection, favored by the presence of abundant receptors on the CNS endothelial cells, and soon after it disrupts the BBB during the first hours of infection as demonstrated by the presence of EB and serum IgY extravasation.

Although DNA microarray can detect multiple DNA samples simultaneously, current detection techniques involve PCR and other traditional procedures. In this study, a sensitive, specific and rapid detection method, which eliminates PCR and other lengthy processes, for pathogenic DNA is presented. This technology is based on the hybridization of target DNA to the immobilized probe, extension of probe DNAs using the target-DNA as a template and signal generation by streptavidin-horseradish peroxidase and substrate. This method is highly specific and sensitive, allowing single-nucleotide-base mismatches discrimination and the detection at femtomole level. The experiments are designed to achieve short hybridization time. Therefore, satisfactory signal can be detected within minutes, allowing the rapid detection of multiple pathogenic DNA. Most importantly, the E. coli genomic DNA can be detected using this technology. In conclusion, this detection method is useful for applications including on-site pathogenic disease detection, crime scene investigation, and pathogen inspection in the environment.

Willow (Salix spp.), a major source of biomass and renewable fiber production, is one of the best choices for short-rotation intensive culture (SRIC) in Canada. Since fungal communities play important roles in the plant’s health status, it is vital to understand their interactions with willows and their roles in the sustainability of SRIC. In this study, fungal diversity of the above-ground organs (stem/leaf) of healthy and diseased willow plants in western Canadian Prairies were assessed using cultural and PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) techniques. Comparison of the mycoprofiles within established plantations vs. newly introduced cuttings revealed differences in the fungal communities. Ascomycota were mainly isolated, followed by Basidiomicota and Zygomycota. Willow genotypes seem have an influence on the abundance of fungal pathogens and disease severity; among them Charlie (Salix alba x gladfelteri) and SV1 (S. eriocephala) cultivars demonstrated superior performances. Photosynthesis measurements and biomass compositions confirmed these findings. Potentially pathogenic fungi (Dothioraceae, Diaporthaceae, Glomeraceae, and Pleosporaceae) dominated in diseased or symptomatic willows, whereas potentially beneficial fungi (Coniochaetaceae, Hypoceraceae, Nectriaceae, Trichocomaceae, and Agaricaceae) prevailed in healthy plants. In-vivo and greenhouse assays showed that inoculation with potentially pathogenic fungi induced leaf necrosis, anthracnose and open cankers. However, suppression of the latter was still possible using fungal antagonists. Hence, assessment of stem/bark and leaf fungal communities with respect to willow genotypes, cuttings origin, and SRIC location, is useful for the design of an effective management strategy to increase the productivity of the SRIC-biomass systems.

In this study, 59 epidemiologically unrelated Salmonella strains isolated from foods in T&uuml / rkiye and 49 Salmonella strains obtained from National Salmonella Reference Laboratories of Germany were analysed. For the characterization of strains, analyses such as serotyping, phage typing, antibiotyping and molecular biological characterization were done. The strains exhibited 17 different serotypes with S. Enteritidis serotype and PT21 phage type being the most prevalent in Turkish isolates. The highest antimicrobial resistance was observed against NAL for Turkish strains, whereas it was against SUL for strains from German origin. Molecular typing of all strains exhibited different plasmid profiles and PFGE patterns. There were 1-4 plasmids/profile for Turkish strains and 1-7 plasmids/profile for German strains. The PFGE patterns revealed 42 different subgroups, having two major clusters with 44,3% arbitrary homology. Among 72 resistant strains, the most prevalent resistance genotypes were observed as blatem-1 (%56, AMP resistance) / floR (%100, CHL and FFC resistance) / aphA1 (%100, KAN and NEO resistance) / tet(A) (%53, TET resistance) / aadA1 (%82, SPE and STR resistance) / sulI (%78, SUL resistance). The class I integron variable region analyses exhibited 700 bp (1 strain), 1000 bp (37 strain), 1200 bp (16 strain) and 1600 bp (3 strain) integrons.

Bacteria cause significant morbidity and mortality throughout the world, including deadly diseases such as tuberculosis, meningitis, cholera, and pneumonia. Timely and accurate bacterial identification is critical in areas such as clinical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, food safety, water and air quality assessment, and identification of biological threat agents. At present, there is an established need for high throughput, sensitive, selective, and rapid methods for the detection of pathogenic bacteria, as existing methods, while nominally effective, have failed to sufficiently reduce the massive impact of bacterial contamination and infection. The work presented in this thesis focuses on addressing this need and augmenting conventional microorganism research through development of mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomic applications. MS, a well established tool for addressing biological problems, offers a broad range of laboratory procedures that can be used for taxonomic classification and identification of microorganisms. These methods provide a powerful complement to many of the widely used molecular biology approaches and play critical functions in various fields of science. While implementation of modern biomolecule-identifying instrumentation, such as MS, has long been postulated to have a role in the microbiology laboratory, it has yet to be accepted on a large scale. Described in this document are MS methods that erect strong foundations on which new bacterial diagnostics may be based. A general introduction on key aspects of this work is presented in Chapter 1, where different approaches for detection of pathogenic bacteria are reviewed, and an overview regarding MS and microbial identification is provided. Chapter 2 presents the first implementation of microbial identification via rapid, open air Direct Analysis in Real Time MS (DART MS) to generate ions directly from microbial samples, including the disease-causing bacteria, Coxiella burnetii, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Escherichia coli. Chapter 3 expands on whole cell C. burnetii MS analysis and presents a rapid differentiation method to the strain-level for C. burnetii using mass profiling/fingerprinting matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) MS and multivariate pattern recognition. Chapter 4 presents a unique "top-down" proteomics approach using 15N-labeled bacteriophage amplification coupled with MALDI-TOF MS as a detector for the rapid and selective identification of Staphylococcus aureus. Chapter 5 extends the idea of using isotopically labeled bacteriophage amplification by implementing a "bottom-up" proteomics approach that not only identifies S. aureus in a sample, but also quantifies the bacterial concentration in the sample using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI/MS/MS) as a detector. In conclusion, Chapter 6, summarizes and contextualizes the work presented in this dissertation, and outlines how future research can build upon the experimentation detailed in this document.

Humanpathogene Sapoviren gehören zur Familie der Caliciviridae und verursachen vor allem bei Klein¬kindern und Senioren Gastroenteritiden. Die Replikationsstrategie von humanpathogenen Sapoviren ist bislang ungeklärt, da weder ein geeignetes Tiermodell noch ein etabliertes Zellkulturmodell zur Verfügung stehen. Aus diesem Grund sollte die Replikation in einem Säugerzellsystem etabliert werden. Die Ergebnisse der Untersuchungen sollen zu einem besseren Verständnis der Replikationsstrategie der humanpathogenen Sapoviren beitragen und können die Grundlage für weitere Unter¬suchungen der Replikationsstrategie der Caliciviren bilden sowie zur Entwicklung geeigneter antiviraler Maßnahmen und Medikamente beitragen. Für die Untersuchung der Replikationsstrategie des humanpathogenen Sapovirus wurde ein Sapovirus-Volle-Länge-Klon aus Patientenmaterial (Stuhlgang-Probe) generiert. Nach der molekularen Charakterisierung konnte der Stamm Hu/SaV/Dresden/pJG-SapI/2004/DE (GenBank-Zugangsnummer AY694184) der Genogruppe I Genotyp 1 der Sapo¬viren zugeordnet werden. Für die Untersuchung der Translation des humanpathogenen Sapovirus in Säugerzellen wurden polyklonale Antikörper in Kaninchen gegen die nichtstrukturellen und strukturellen Sapovirus-Proteine generiert. Im zellfreien System konnte die Sensitivität und Spezifität dieser Antikörper validiert werden. Außerdem wurde die Translation im zellfreien System mit bereits bestehenden Ergebnissen verglichen. Die Prozessierung des ORF1-Polyproteins erfolgte in die nichtstrukturellen Proteine NS1, NS2, NS3NTPase, NS4, NS5VPg, die Fusionsproteine NS1-3, NS2-3, NS4-5, NS4-7, NS5-7 und NS6 7Pro-Pol sowie das strukturelle Protein VP1. Für die Charakterisierung der Replikation des humanpathogenen Sapovirus in Säugerzellen wurden verschiedene Sapovirus-Volle-Länge-cDNA-Klone generiert. Für das Sapovirus-Volle-Länge-RNA-Genom pJG-SapI-T7 konnte eine Translation der Sapovirus-Proteine nach¬gewiesen werden. Die Transfektion von 293T-Zellen erfolgte mit in vitro transkribierter RNA, die ein Cap-Analogon und einen Poly(A)-Schwanz besaß. Durch die dem Sapovirus-Genom vorangestellte Kozak-Sequenz, welche als Ribosomenbindungsstelle dient, konnte auch nach Mutation des aktiven Zentrums des nichtstrukturellen Proteins NS7Pol (RNA-abhängige RNA-Polymerase) eine Translation des Sapovirus-ORF1-Polyproteins nachgewiesen werden. Somit erwies sich dieses Konstrukt als ungeeignet für die Untersuchung der Replikation des humanpathogenen Sapovirus in Säugerzellen. Nach Klonierung des Sapovirus-Volle-Länge-cDNA-Genoms in den pACYC-MCSII-Vektor (pJG-SapI-T7) konnte nach in vitro Transkription ein gekapptes Sapovirus-Volle-Länge-RNA-Genom mit einem Poly(A)-Schwanz generiert werden, welches vermutlich die richtigen 5’- und 3’-Sapovirus-Enden enthält. Nach Transfektion von 293T-Zellen konnten die nichtstrukturellen Fusionsproteine NS2-3, NS4-5, NS4-7 und NS6-7Pro-Pol sowie das strukturelle Protein VP1 im Western Blot nachgewiesen werden. Nach Mutation des aktiven Zentrums des nichtstrukturellen Proteins NS6Pro (Protease) wurde die Prozessierung des ORF1-Polyproteins in Säugerzellen unter¬bunden. Die Replikation der generierten Sapovirus-Volle-Länge-RNA-Genome in Säugerzellen konnte mit Hilfe der quantitativen PCR nicht nachgewiesen werden. Eine Passagierung in verschiedenen Säugerzelllinien war ebenfalls nicht möglich. Weiter wurden verschiedene Sapovirus-Volle-Länge-RNA-Genome direkt aus Patientenmaterial durch RT-PCR generiert und nach in vitro Transkription damit Säugerzellen transfiziert. Bei Sapovirus-Volle-Länge-RNA-Genomen aus drei Patientenproben konnte die Translation und Prozessierung des Sapovirus-ORF1-Polyproteins nachgewiesen werden. Die Replikation konnte mit Hilfe der quantitativen PCR nicht nachgewiesen werden. In einem letzten Schritt wurde aus Patientenmaterial gewonnene RNA direkt für die Transfektion eingesetzt. Hierfür wurden die Patientenproben verwendet, bei denen eine Translation und Prozessierung des Sapovirus-ORF1-Polyproteines nachgewiesen werden konnte. Auch hier konnte keine Replikation mit Hilfe der quantitativen PCR nachgewiesen werden. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte erstmals die erfolgreiche Translation und Prozessierung des ORF1-Polyproteins des humanpathogenen Sapovirus (Dresdner Stamm pJG-SapI, GenBank-Zugangsnummer AY694184) in Säugerzellen gezeigt werden. Weitergehende Untersuchungen zur Replikation des humanpathogenen Sapovirus in Säugerzellen könnten mit Hilfe des vorliegenden Dresdner Sapovirus-Stamm pJG-SapI erfolgen, indem weitere rekombinante Systeme etabliert werden. / The human pathogenic sapovirus belongs to the family of the Caliciviridae and is an important agent of gastroenteritis in infants and the elderly. The replication strategy of the human pathogenic sapovirus remains so far unclear, since neither a suitable animal model nor a permissive cell line to cultivate the virus are available. Elucidating the replication strategy of the human pathogenic sapovirus may contribute to a better understanding of its pathogenicity, being also an important pre-requisite for the development of new antiviral strategies against this relevant medical pathogen. In order to investigate the replication strategy of the human pathogenic sapovirus, a cDNA-clone encompassing the entire sapovirus genome was generated from a clinical sample. Based on phylogenetic analysis, the full-length genome of the sapovirus strain Hu/SaV/Dresden/pJG-SapI/2004/DE (GenBank accession number AY694184) was assigned to the Genogruppe I/ Genotype 1. For the investigation of the translation of the human pathogenic sapovirus in mammalian cells, polyclonal antibodies were generated against the nonstructural and structural sapovirus proteins. The sensitivity and specificity of the antibodies were validated using a transcription-translation driven cell free system. Translation of the sapovirus full-length-cDNA clone in the cell free system generated structural and nonstructural sapovirus proteins, in accordance with previously published reports. After translation, the sapovirus ORF1 polyprotein was processed in the nonstructural proteins NS1, NS2, NS3NTPase, NS4, NS5VPg, the fusion proteins NS1-3, NS2-3, NS4-5, NS4-7, NS5-7 and NS6-7Pro-Pol as well as the structural protein VP1. For the characterisation of the replication of the human pathogenic sapovirus in mammalian cells, different sapovirus cDNA-full length clones were generated. Upon transfection in 293-T cells, a translation of the sapovirus proteins was evidenced. However, this translation was not sapovirus-specific, as cDNA clones bearing a mutation in the active site of the sapovirus polymerase NS7Pol were also able to generate viral proteins. In order to further investigate the translation and replication of the sapovirus, the full length cDNA Genome was cloned into the pACYC-MCSII-Vector. Subsequently, a capped sapovirus full length RNA genome with a correct 5’-end and a 3’-end with a poly(A) tail was generated by in vitro transcription. Upon transfection in 293T-cells, the nonstructural fusion proteins NS2-3, NS4-5, NS4-7 and NS6-7Pro-Pol as well as the structural protein VP1 were translated. As a control, mutation of the active site of the nonstructural protein NS6Pro did not lead to processing of the viral enzymes, indicating that the processing of the ORF1-polyprotein in mammalian cells is strictly dependent on the activity of the sapovirus protease NS6Pro. Furthermore, replication of the sapovirus genomic RNA was investigated in mammalian cells. Upon transfection of the sapovirus full-length genomic RNA, replication of the sapovirus full-length RNA genomes was not evidenced in mammalian cells using quantitative real time RT-PCR. In order to exclude a possible flaw in the primary sequence of the viral genome hampering its replication, additional sapovirus full-length genomes were generated by direct amplification of the RNA from stool samples followed by in vitro transcription. Upon transfection in mammalian cells, the translation of sapovirus ORF1-polyprotein was evidenced in three clinical samples. However, replication of the viral genome did not occur. A similar observation was made when the total RNA from the clinical sample was used for transfection of mammalian cells, indicating that the lack of replication of the viral genome may be caused primarily by the cell line used, rather than the viral genome. In conclusion, the present work describes for the first time the successful processing of the ORF1-Polyprotein of the human pathogenic Sapovirus (strain Dresden pJG-SapI, GenBank accession number AY694184) in mammalian cells. This work may be a first step towards understanding the replication strategy of the human pathogenic and non-human pathogenic sapovirus (i.e. the porcine enteric calicivirus), being both important medical pathogens.

In this study, the expression of HA, a key immunogenic protein of influenza viruses, in insect cells was compared using three baculovirus expression strategies: protein over-expression, surface (GP64) display, and capsid (VP39) display. Further, a recombinant virus expressing NA, another immunogenic influenza virus protein, was generated and fused to an HA epitope-tag. Western immunoblot using various antibodies, including those against HA, demonstrated the expression of HA and NA for all recombinant viruses. HA showed stronger expression when fused to the C-terminus of VP39 than the N-terminus, but unlike other expression methods, there was no observable cleavage of HA in VP39-displayed viruses. Cells infected with only over-expressed and surfaced-displayed HA were biologically active, and capable of hemadsorption and hemagglutination of chicken red blood cells. These results suggest that GP64 display or over-expression are the most efficacious modes of HA-expression for use as antigen to detect anti-HA antibodies in poultry. / NSERC, OGS, OMAFRA, CPRC