L’objectif de ce travail est d’appliquer le concept d’observatoire à un système éducatif comme outil d’aide à la décision basé sur la visualisation de l’information. Pour cela, nous avons développé l’Observatoire Dynamique appliqué au Système Éducatif (ODSE) que nous avons appliqué au système éducatif camerounais.Notre démarche descriptive part du fait que pour décider, il faut comprendre et pour comprendre, il faut observer et analyser. D’une manière ou d’une autre, l’intelligence repose sur le processus d’observation. La prise de décision intervient alors après la compréhension de son environnement. Aussi, l’observation se transforme-t-elle en connaissances avec le sens donné aux choses et la détermination de ce qu’il faut faire. Or l’analyse et la compréhension de l’environnement diffèrent d’un individu à autre ; la prise de décision est alors influencée par des facteurs externes telles les pressions politiques, culturelles et/ou sociales. Sachant que c’est l’information dont on dispose orientant le processus et le choix de la résolution d’un problème décisionnel, nous avons pensé qu’il est important de disposer d’un outil qui éclaire le décideur dans le processus décisionnel pour une prise de position rapide et sans risque ou tout au moins en minimisant la part d’incertitude dans la prise de décision. Cet outil offrant la transparence dans le traitement, la clarté dans le processus de collecte et la communication de l’information et la précision dans la prise de décision qui est basée sur des informations fiables. Tel un observatoire, il sert d’instrument de veille et de pilotage à travers lequel, le décideur observe, analyse et oriente sa décision en fonction du comportement d’un ou de plusieurs indicateurs. Le résultat restitué sous une forme visuelle permet de générer des indicateurs à partir de la masse de données dont dispose le décideur.Notre travail a été guidé par le concept d’intelligence économique qui offre une méthodologie de mise en œuvre d’un processus rationnel par l’utilisation de l’information et il se situe au niveau des approches du choix satisfaisant et du processus rationnel de décision exposés par Falque et Bougon. / The aim of this work is to apply the concept of observatory in educational system as a tool for decision support based on the visualization of information. For this, we have developed the Dynamic Observatory applied to the Education System (ODSE) that we have applied to the Cameroonian educational system. Our descriptive approach is based on fact that to decide, one must understand, and to understand, we must observe and analyze. In one way or another, intelligence is based on the observation process. The decision comes after understanding its environment. Also, the observation is turned into knowledge with the given meaning to things and determining what to do. But the analysis and understanding of the environment differ from one individual to another; the decision is then influenced by external factors such as political pressures, cultural and / or social. This being the information we have for steering the process and the choice of solving a decision problem, we thought it important to have a tool that assists the decision maker in the decision process for making quick and safe decisions or at least minimizing the degree of uncertainty in decision chosen. This tool provides transparency in processing and clarity in the process of information collection. Such an observatory, it serves as an instrument for monitoring and control through which the decision-maker observes, analyzes and orients its decision based on the behavior of one or more indicators. The result returned is in a visual form to generate indicators from the mass of data available to the decision maker. Our work has been guided by the concept of competitive intelligence that provides a methodology for implementing a rational process through the use of information and it is based on the approaches of “satisfactory” choice and rational decision process from the work of Falque and Bougon.

Les sources hydrothermales sont localisées le long des dorsales médio-océaniques et des bassins arrière-arcs. Elles abritent une faune spécialisée dont le développement repose sur la chimiosynthèse microbienne, possible grâce aux éléments réduits présents dans le fluide hydrothermal. Alors que les liens entre les assemblages fauniques et les habitats ont relativement bien été décrits autour du globe, notre connaissance de la dynamique temporelle de ces écosystèmes demeure encore limitée, et particulièrement sur ces échelles de temps cohérentes avec la biologie des organismes (de quelques minutes à plusieurs années). Sur l’exemple des communautés hydrothermales inféodées à la dorsale Juan de Fuca, située dans le nord-est de l'océan Pacifique, ce mémoire vise à comprendre le fonctionnement et la dynamique temporelle des communautés de macrofaunes hydrothermales associées aux assemblages de vers Siboglinidae Ridgeia piscesae à travers le couplage de l'échantillonnage et d'une approche observatoire fond de mer. Cette étude a d’abord permis la description quantitative (composition, diversité et biomasse) de six assemblages de siboglinidés sur l’édifice hydrothermal Grotto (champ Main Endeavour, dorsale Juan de Fuca) et d’évaluer la structure trophique de ces communautés à l’aide des isotopes stables. Les résultats obtenus ont permis d’identifier 36 taxons, caractérisés par une importante diversité de polychètes et une forte densité de gastéropodes. Les assemblages de R. piscesae les plus développés présentaient des diversités plus importantes et des réseaux trophiques plus complexes. La coexistence des espèces au sein des structures biogéniques formées par R. piscesae s’expliquerait par un fort partitionnement des niches écologiques et des ressources nutritionnelles. L'analyse des images vidéo recueillies par le module écologique d’observationTEMPO-mini, déployé sur l’édifice Grotto au sein de l’observatoire câblé Ocean Networks Canada, a permis d’étudier la dynamique temporelle de ces espèces en suivant les variations de l'abondance de la macrofaune hydrothermale quotidiennement pendant une année, et toutes les 4 heures pendant un mois d’été et deux mois d’hiver. Les résultats ont permis de mettre en évidence une influence significative du cycle semi-diurne de la marée et des tempêtes de surface hivernale sur la distribution de deux espèces mobiles et non-symbiotiques (pycnogonides Sericosura sp. et polychètes Polynoidae). La dynamique locale des courants océaniques semble affecter périodiquement le mélange entre les émissions de fluides hydrothermaux et l'eau de mer environnante, modifiant les conditions environnementales au sein de l’habitat.Cette étude suggère que les espèces hydrothermales répondent à ces modifications de l'habitat en ajustant leur comportement. Finalement, dans un contexte où l’observation et l’imagerie prennent une place importante dans l’étude des écosystèmes profonds, cette thèse a permis d'optimiser les techniques d'imagerie vidéo dans l'extraction des données écologiques et dans la recherche des cycles naturels. Dans l’ensemble, ces résultats apportent des informations nouvelles et précieuses dans notre compréhension du fonctionnement et de la dynamique des communautés hydrothermales profondes et ouvre de nouvelles voies de recherches pour l'écologie des écosystèmes marins profonds en général. / Hydrothermal vents are distributed along mid-ocean ridges and back-arc basins. These ecosystems harbour a specialized fauna supported by a local chemosynthetic microbial production, made possible through the oxidation of reduced elements present in the hydrothermal fluid. While the relationships between faunal assemblages and habitats have been relatively well described around the globe, our knowledge on the temporal dynamics of these environments is still limited, particularly at time scale relevant to organisms (from few minutes to several years). Based on hydrothermal vent communities occurring on the Juan de Fuca Ridge, located in the northeast Pacific Ocean, this thesis aims at understanding the functioning and temporal dynamics of macrofaunal communities associated with the Siboglinidae Ridgeia piscesae tubeworm assemblages through the coupling of sampling and seafloor observatory approach. This study first allowed the quantitative description (composition, diversity and biomass) of six siboglinid species assemblages on the Grotto hydrothermal edifice (Main Endeavour, Juan de Fuca Ridge) and the assessment of the trophic structure of these communities using stable isotopes. The results enabled the identification of 36 taxa. An elevated polychaete diversities and high densities of gastropods characterized all assemblages. The most developed R. piscesae assemblages exhibited greater diversity and more complex food webs. The species coexistence within the biogenic structures created by R. piscesae could be explained by a strong partitioning of ecological niches and nutritional resources. The analysis of video images gathered by the ecological observatory module TEMPO-mini, deployed on the Grotto edifice on the cabled observatory OceanNetworks Canada, provided information on the temporal dynamics of the assemblage. The abundance variations of four macrofaunal species were tracked at a daily frequency during one year and every 4 hours during one summer and two winter months. Our results highlighted a significant influence of the semi-diurnal tidal cycle and winter surface storms on the distribution of two mobile and non-symbiotic taxa (Sericosura sp. pycnogonids and Polynoidae polychaetes). The local ocean dynamics seemed to periodically affect the mixing between hydrothermal fluid inputs and surrounding seawater, therefore modifying environmental conditions in vent habitats. This study suggests that hydrothermal species respond to these habitat modifications by adjusting their behaviour. Finally, considering the increased importance of observational and imagery approaches in the study of deep-sea ecosystems, this thesis proposes a guideline and methodology in order to optimise video imagery methods both for the extraction of ecological data and the search of natural cycles. Overall, these results bring novel and valuable information to help understand the functioning and dynamics of deep-sea hydrothermal communities and opens new research avenues for deep-sea ecology in general.

O Brasil está em processo de convergência às normas internacionais de Contabilidade aplicadas ao setor público. Estas normas visam a produção de informações contábeis de alta qualidade para fins de tomada de decisão e accountability e estabelecem que os cidadãos estão entre os principais usuários de suas informações. Os cidadãos compõem um grupo de usuários diversificado, com conhecimentos e necessidades informacionais distintas. Um caso em que os cidadãos possam precisar das informações contábeis é ao realizar o controle social sobre as atividades do setor público. Em particular, o Observatório Social do Brasil é uma rede composta por instituições que se dedicam ao controle social e que são o foco deste trabalho. O principal aspecto teórico escolhido para entender o comportamento desta rede foi o modelo do Novo Serviço Público, que destaca a participação social na gestão pública. Sob este ponto de vista, o objetivo deste trabalho consiste em identificar quais são os fatores condicionantes para a qualidade das informações contábeis sob a ótica dos observatórios sociais. Para alcançar este objetivo, a metodologia envolveu a realização de duas etapas de entrevistas semiestruturadas e a aplicação de questionário eletrônico aos membros dos observatórios sociais. Os principais resultados destoam do que a literatura tem avaliado sobre a qualidade da divulgação de informações governamentais. Ao passo que esta literatura se preocupa principalmente com aspectos relacionados ao conteúdo disponibilizado e a capacidade e qualidade da estrutura tecnológica, esta pesquisa chegou ao resultado de que a qualidade da informação contábil depende majoritariamente do interesse e mobilização dos cidadãos e do governo. Quanto à Contabilidade, a conclusão que se chegou é que ela tem elevada importância para os observadores sociais. Os resultados são do ponto de vista de que a informação é mais do que disponibilização de documentos, mas que envolve diálogo, permissão e visualização. Quanto às características qualitativas da informação contábil, os observatórios se importam primordialmente em compreender e obter as informações de forma tempestiva. Como sugestão de estudos futuros, indica-se a investigação do que permite a realização das atividades de outras entidades e pessoas voltadas ao controle social. A rede Observatório Social do Brasil tem crescido e ocupado uma posição relevante frente ao controle social, mas não é a única. Outra possibilidade de ampliar os horizontes da qualidade da informação contábil é investigar se alguma outra instituição que se dedica ao controle social faz uso dos demonstrativos contábeis e para qual finalidade. / Brazil is in the process of converging to international accounting standards applied to the public sector. These standards aim to produce high-quality accounting information for decision-making and accountability purposes and establish that citizens are among the primary users. Citizens integrate a diversified group of users with different knowledge and information needs. A case in which citizens may need the accounting information is when performing social control over the activities of the public sector. In particular, the Observatório Social do Brasil (Social Observatory of Brazil) is a network composed of institutions that are dedicated to social control and are the focus of this work. The main theoretical aspect chosen for understand the behavior of entities dedicated to social control was the model of the New Public Service, which highlights a social participation in public management. From this point of view, the objective is to identify which are the conditioning factors for the quality of the accounting information from a perspective of the social observatories. To achieve this goal, the methodology involved the accomplishment of two stages of semi-structured interviews and the application of an electronic questionnaire for members of social observatories. The main results contradict the literature of the quality of government information disclosure. While this literature is basically concerned with the content available and the capacity and quality of the technological structure, this research has reached the result that the quality of accounting information depends mainly on the interest and mobilization of citizens and the government. The conclusion was that Accounting is of great importance to social observers. The results are from the point of view that information is more than the provision of documents, but that involves dialogue, permission and visualization. For the qualitative characteristics of accounting information, observers are primarily concerned with understanding and obtaining information in a timely manner. As a suggestion of future studies, it indicates the investigation of what allows the accomplishment of the activities of other entities and persons directed to the social control. The Observatório Social do Brasil network has grown and occupied a position relevant to social control, but it is not the only one. Another possibility to broaden the horizons of the quality of accounting information is to investigate if any other entity that is dedicated to social control makes use of the financial statements and for what purpose.

No Brasil, cidadãos convivem a todo instante com ausência de serviços públicos de qualidade que, em certa intensidade, é fruto de alto nível de corrupção sistêmica, má gestão, falta de eficácia e eficiência na aplicação de recursos públicos, ao passo que os processos de controle interno, externo e as Leis de Responsabilidade Fiscal, entre outras, não são suficientes para promover accountabillity. Assim, objetiva-se com esta pesquisa analisar as contribuições do Obsevatório Social do Brasil para o exercício do controle social da gestão pública. Para isto, a pesquisa se propõe a identificar como, e em que intensidade, o Observatório Social do Brasil tem contribuído como instrumento de controle social da gestão pública no Brasil. O estudo conta com levantamento de dados secundários por meio de pesquisa bibliográfica e primários referente à entrevista semiestruturada a líderes de OSs e, também, levantamento de campo por meio de questionário (survey) enviado a 101 Observatórios que compõem a rede OSB, dos quais 74 responderam a pesquisa. Os dados pesquisados possibilitaram descrever o Observatório Social do Brasil e identificar as principais práticas utilizadas para controle social; relacionar a atuação do Observatório Social do Brasil com o controle social da gestão pública. A pesquisa identificou que o trabalho desenvolvido pelos Observatórios Sociais municipais, nos últimos dois anos, resultou em uma economia estimada aos cofres públicos acima de R$ 810.254.821,48 (milhões de reais), valores identificados pela metodologia de apuração dos Observatórios Sociais. Esse valor foi alcançado em função de 7.988 projetos efetivados com a participação de 1.486 membros voluntários. Os resultados apurados são expressivos e sinalizam que o controle social da gestão pública implica em ganhos de qualidade, economia e melhor aplicação dos recursos públicos em benefícios dos cidadãos. / In Brazil, citizens coexist at all times with the absence of quality public services that, to a certain degree, result from a high level of systemic corruption, mismanagement, lack of efficiency and efficiency in the application of public resources, while Internal and external control, and the Fiscal Responsibility Laws, among others, are not enough to promote accountabillity. Thus, the objective of this research is to analyze the contributions of the Social Observatory of Brazil for the exercise of social control of public management. For this, the research aims to identify how, and in what intensity, the Social Observatory of Brazil has contributed as an instrument of social control of public management in Brazil. The study counts on the collection of secondary data through bibliographical and primary research concerning the semistructured interview with OS leaders and also a field survey through a questionnaire (survey) sent to 101 Observatories that make up the OSB network, of the Which 74 responded to the survey. The data surveyed allowed to describe the Social Observatory of Brazil and identify the main practices used for social control; To relate the performance of the Social Observatory of Brazil to the social control of public management. The research identified that the work carried out by the Municipal Social Observatories in the last two years has resulted in an estimated savings to the public coffers above R $ 810,254,821.48 (millions of reais), values identified by the Social Observatories methodology. This figure was reached on the basis of 7,988 projects carried out with the participation of 1,486 volunteer members. The results verified are expressive and indicate that the social control of the public administration implies in gains of quality, economy and better application of the public resources in benefits of the citizens. / Dissertação (Mestrado)

The cosmic rays are the most energetic particles in the universe. Their production, propagation, and detection are objects of studies. Surface detectors aim to identify particles from extensive air showers (EAS) which the result from the cosmic-ray interactions with the atmosphere. Resistive Plate Chambers (RPCs) have shown to be a suitable muon detector to be integrated into the Pierre Auger Observatory. An instrumentation was developed to assembly RPCs in São Carlos (BRA). Data from RPCs already built by our collaborators in Coimbra (POR) were analyzed. The detector efficiency to muons was calculated and is approximately 88%, which is in good agreement with the values quoted in the literature. Direction maps were built to investigate the muon incoming direction and the quantity of matter traversed by the muons. The dependence of the muon flux on the zenith angle was calculated and compared with results from the simulation. A square cosine dependence is expected, though it is seen that the building structure has enough matter to block some of the incident muons and alter the dependence curve. The total muon flux was estimated based on the detector efficiencies and solid angle as 1.6.10−5. mm−2.sr−1. s−1 compared with the literature value of 7.1.10−5 mm−2.sr−1.s−1, which gives an absorption by the building of approximately 77%. / Os raios cósmicos são as partículas mais energéticas do universo. Sua produção, propagação e detecção são objetos de estudos. Os detectores de superfície têm como objetivo identificar partículas dos chuveiros atmosféricos extensos (EAS), o qual é o resultado das interações do raio cósmico com a atmosfera. A Câmaras de Placas Resistivas (RPCs) demonstra ser um detector de múons adequado para ser integrado ao Observatório Pierre Auger. Foi desenvolvida em São Carlos (BRA) uma instrumentação para montagem de RPCs. Dados de RPCs já construídas por nossos colaboradores em Coimbra (POR) foram analisados. A eficiência dos detectores para múons foi calculada como sendo de aproximadamente 88%, o que está de acordo com os valores citados na literatura. Mapas de direção foram construídos para investigar a direção de chegada e a quantidade de matéria atravessada pelos múons. A dependência do fluxo de múons com o ângulo zenital foi comparada com os resultados da simulação. Embora uma dependência com o quadrado do cosseno é esperada, foi constatado que a estrutura do prédio tem matéria suficiente para bloquear parte dos múons incidentes e alterar a curva da dependência. O fluxo total de múons foi estimado baseado nas eficiências do detector e no ângulo sólido é de 1.6.10−5 mm−2.sr−1.s−1. Comparado com o valor da literatura de 7.1.10−5 mm−2.sr−1.s−1 resulta em uma absorção pelo prédio de aproximadamente 77% do fluxo de múons.

A determinação da massa de raios cósmicos ultra energéticos é uma questão em aberto devido a flutuação natural da primeira interação e o desconhecimentos da seção de choque para altas energias (E > 1017 eV). Alguns estudos (1) mostraram que modificações sistemáticas das propriedades em interações hadrônicas interfere significativamente no desenvolvimento de chuveiros atmosféricos extensos e, consequentemente, provêm diferentes interpretações para os resultados de raios cósmicos. No limite de altas energias, pode ocorrer a saturação de glúons na superfície nuclear, o que resulta no aumento da seção de choque próton-próton e próton-núcleo em relação ao modelo de Glauber. A seção de choque cresce com a energia e está relacionada com a função de distribuição de probabilidade de encontrar um centro espalhado que é maior no modelo de saturação de glúons. Neste trabalho analisamos a seção de choque próton-ar e núcleo-ar para energias acima de 1018 eV usando a hipótese da saturação de glúons (2). Implementamos a saturação de glúons no modelos de interações hadrônicas de altas energia SIBYLL e estudamos o desenvolvimento do chuveiro atmosférico extenso usando o programa CORSIKA. Comparamos os resultados com a taxa de elongação medida pelo Observatório Pierre Auger. Concluímos mostrando o efeito da saturação de glúons na interpretação na composição da massa de raios cósmicos ultra energéticos. / The determination of the composition of ultra high energy cosmic rays is an open question due to natural fluctuations of the first interaction point and unknow high energy cross sections. Some studies (1) have shown that systematic modifications in the hadronics interaction properties infer significantly in the development of extensive air showers and, consequently, provides different interpretations of cosmic ray results. In high energy limit (E > 1018eV), gluon saturation may occur in the nuclear surface region, so that the cross section proton-proton and proton-nucleus increase more rapidly with incident energy than Glauber theory. The cross section rise with energy is related to the probability distribution function of scattering centers which is larger for gluon saturation models. In this work we analyze the cross section proton-proton and proton-nucleus at energies above 1018 eV using the gluon saturation hypothesis (2). We implemented the gluon saturation physics in the SIBYLL hadronic interaction model and we studied the development of the air shower using the CORSIKA program. Different extrapolation models of high energy interaction with gluon interaction have been implemented in SIBYLL. We compared the simulation results using gluon saturation with the measured elongation rate published by the Pierre Auger Collaborations. We conclude by showing the effect of gluon saturation in the interpretation of cosmic ray by composition.

Recentemente, o Observatório Pierre Auger tem medido espectro de energia de Raios Cósmicos Ultra Energéticos (Ultra High Energy Cosmic Rays - UHECR) (E > 1019 eV) com grande acurácia. No entanto, o estudo de raios cósmicos ultra energéticos na Terra tem uma forte dependência do estudo de sua propagação no Universo. Neste trabalho, abordamos o estudo da propagação de raios cósmicos em diferentes aspectos. Núcleos em alta energia interagem com os campos de radiação no caminho da fonte à Terra. A interação mais importante é a fotodesintegração. Na primeira parte, implementamos de maneira analítica e numérica a solução da razão de fotodesintegração e fizemos uso da solução numérica em um programa de Monte Carlo. Mostramos soluções baseadas na parametrização das seções de choque por uma função Gaussiana e por uma função Lorenztiana. Comparamos nossos resultados com trabalhos prévios da literatura. O seguinte estudo mostrou que sob a hipótese de propagação quase-linear e utilizando várias distribuições de fontes no céu, a latitude do observatório: tem influência no fluxo total medido por um observatório; impõe um limite na capacidade de medida de anisotropia e tem um efeito negligenciável na medida do XMax. No terceiro estudo, um limite superior na integral do fluxo de raios gama em GeV-TeV é usado para obter um limite superior na luminosidade total de UHECR de fontes individuais. A correlação entre o limite superior na integral do fluxo de raios gama e o limite superior na luminosidade total de UHECR é estabelecida através do processo de cascatas de partículas geradas durante a propagação de raios cósmicos nos campos de radiação. / Recently, the Pierre Auger Observatory has measured the energy spectrum of Ultra High Energy Cosmic Rays (UHECR) (E > 1019 eV) with an unprecedented accuracy. However, the study of ultra-high energy cosmic rays at Earth depends on the models used to describe the propagation of the particle in the Universe. In this work, we present a study of propagation of cosmic rays on different aspects. Nucleus at this high energy interacts with the radiation fields on the way from the source to Earth. The most important interaction is the photodisintegration. In the first part, we implemented analytical, numerical and Monte Carlo simulation solutions for the photodisintegration rate. We show solutions based on parameterizations of the cross-section using Gaussian and Lorenztian functions. We compare our results with previous works. The following study shows that under the assumption of quasi-linear propagation and using several sources distributions of sky, the latitude of the observatory: has influence on the total flux measured by an observatory; imposes a limitation on the capability of measuring an anisotropic sky and has a negligible efect on the Xmax measurement. In the thirdy study, an upper limit on the integral flux of GeV-TeV gamma-rays is used to extract the upper limit on the total UHECR luminosity of individual sources. The correlation between upper limit on the integral GeV-TeV gamma-rays flux and upper limit on the UHECR luminosity is established through the cascading process that takes place during propagation of the cosmic-rays in the background radiation fields.

Os detectores de superfície do observatório Pierre Auger são tanques repletos de água e completamente escuros com sensores fotomultiplicadores instalados na parte interna. Quando as partículas carregadas de chuveiros atmosféricos atravessam a água com velocidade acima a da luz nesse meio, geram radiação ultravioleta devido ao efeito Cherenkov. Os sensores fotomultiplicadores desses detectores medem e convertem essa radiação em sinais elétricos que são enviados para a central de dados, registrando assim um evento. Alguns eventos apresentam comportamento incomum, caracterizado por apresentar mais de uma estrutura na série temporal, coincidentes em pelo menos dois detectores de superfície distantes. Esse trabalho se dedicou a investigar sobre as características e origens desses eventos. Devido ao grande número de dados registrados pelo Observatório Pierre Auger, foi preciso desenvolver uma ferramenta computacional para reconhecer e selecionar aqueles eventos que apresentam as estruturas desejadas de forma automática. Após, esse filtro, tentamos determinar um padrão buscando semelhanças ou tendências em variáveis dos chuveiros, como a energia e a direção de chegada. Em segunda análise olhamos para os eventos híbridos, chuveiros observados pelos detectores de superfície e pelos telescópios de fluorescência simultaneamente, de modo a analisar o desenvolvimento longitudinal do chuveiro. Na sequência, foram realizado algumas simulações de chuveiros para alguns dos eventos selecionados com o algoritmo desenvolvido. Esses eventos foram então reconstituídos, simulando uma detecção pelo observatório, com o intuito de determinar se a origem desse sinal anômalo está relacionada a uma resposta dos detectores. O último passo, foi analisar a razão entre a proporção de eventos selecionados e o número total de eventos observados em função da energia da partícula primária, o que revelou uma relação entre essas duas grandezas. / The surface detectors of Pierre Auger observatory are water filled tanks and completely dark with photomultiplier sensors installed indoors. When charged particles of air showers cross the water with velocities above that of light in this medium, ultraviolet radiation is generated due to the Cherenkov effect. The photomultiplier sensors of these detectors measure and convert this radiation into electrical signals that are sent to the data center, thus recording an event. Some events have unusual behavior, characterized by having more than one structure in its time series, coincident in at least two distant surface detectors. This work was dedicated to investigate the characteristics and origins of these events. Due to the large amount of data recorded by the Pierre Auger Observatory it was necessary to develop a computational tool to automatically recognize and select those events that present the desired structure type. After applying this filter, we tried to determine a pattern by looking for similarities or trends in air-shower variables, such as energy and direction of arrival. In a second analysis, we looked at the hybrid events, air showers observed by the surface detectors and the fluorescence telescopes simultaneously, in order to analyze the longitudinal development of air shower. In the sequence, we performed some simulations of air showers for some events selected with the developed algorithm. These events were then reconstituted, simulating a detection by the observatory for the purpose of determinin if the origin of this anomalous signal is related to a response of the detectors. The last step was to analyze the ratio between the proportion of selected events and the total number of events observed as a function of the energy of the primary particle, which revealed a relation between these two quantities.

Le contexte du transport de marchandises en transit à travers les Alpes est d’abord marqué par plusieurs décennies de croissance importante des flux. Cette croissance est cependant inégale dans le temps et selon les passages considérés. Un second élément de contexte tient à la fragilité particulière des territoires alpins vis-à-vis des impacts de la circulation : plus qu’ailleurs, on y constate une montée des préoccupations environnementales. Cette thèse vise à comprendre l’élaboration des politiques publiques de transport concernant le trafic transalpin. Elle s’attache d’abord à évaluer la mesure dans laquelle ce processus d’élaboration participe de l’émergence d’un espace géopolitique alpin. Elle cherche ensuite à préciser le rôle des outils technico-économique au sein de ce processus. La question sera abordée à deux échelles différentes, à travers deux études de cas : une histoire de l’évolution des objectifs assignés au projet Lyon-Turin depuis sa naissance ; une analyse des dispositifs de la concertation autour des questions de transport menée à l’échelle de l’arc alpin dans son ensemble. Un premier résultat apparait sous la forme d’une « alpinisation » progressive de la question du transit alpin. Elle se traduit en premier lieu par une représentation de l’arc alpin comme un système de passages interconnectés et, en second lieu, par la mise en place de structures de concertation rassemblant les acteurs concernés à l’échelle du massif. Un second ensemble de résultats montre d’abord comment les outils technico-économiques utilisés et leurs usages sont complètement insérés dans ce processus d’ « alpinisation ». Il fait apparaitre ensuite le glissement d’un usage déterministe de ces outils, où les résultats ont davantage vocation à justifier des décisions antérieures à un usage procédural, où les outils sont utilisés de façon de plus en plus partagée par les différents acteurs, pour simuler les différentes options politiques et participer à l’élaboration de mesures précises. / The context of freight transport in transit through the Alps is marked by several decades of traffic flow growth. Such a growth has been uneven over time and from passage to passage. A second element characterises this context. It deals with the peculiar fragility of the alpine areas to traffic impacts: the rising of environmental concerns in these regions appears to be stronger than elsewhere. The aim of this thesis is to comprehend the elaboration of transportation public policies concerning the transalpine traffics. Firstly, we endeavour to assess to which extent this decision making process has contributed towards the emergence of a geopolitical alpine space. Secondly, we seek to clarify the role of economical tools inside this process. The issue will be addressed at two different scales, on the basis of two case studies: the history of the Lyon-Turin project, aiming at retracing the evolution of the strategic goals it has integrated over time; the analysis of the alpine cooperation systems dealing with transports issues developed at the whole alpine arc scale. Outcomes show a progressive “alpinisation” of the transit question. Firstly, it results of a representation of the Alps as a system of interconnected passages. Secondly, it relies on the construction of some structures of cooperation bringing together actors involved by transalpine transit. Another group of outcomes shows that the economical assessment tools and their usage are closely linked to this “alpinisation” process. It also highlights an evolution from a deterministic approach, where economical tools mainly play a justification role for some pre-established strategies, to a procedural approach, where they are shared by actors and used in order to simulate different political options and to help so in designing policies.

Cette thèse se donne pour objectif d’étudier les apories théoriques et épistémologiques liées à la synonymie. Pour l’essentiel, ces problèmes se concentrent dans la faiblesse théorique de la notion par rapport au succès empirique dont elle jouit dans l’usage et les dictionnaires. Cette faiblesse théorique prend racine dans l’histoire de la notion : la synonymie a été définie en premier lieu par Aristote et a subi de nombreuses transformations au cours des siècles. La définition scientifique de la synonymie s’est constituée à partir de la synonymie distinctive des synonymistes. Les notions fondatrices de la linguistique moderne ont été appliquées à la synonymie alors qu’elle a été élaborée avant leur conception. La synonymie se plie mal aux cadres théoriques de la linguistique moderne d’où des apories. L’approche distinctive centre l’étude de la synonymie sur les différences de sens alors qu’elle repose sur des équivalences sémantiques approchées. L’histoire de la notion aide à éclairer les apories et à s’en distancier pour recentrer la notion sur les équivalences puisqu’elles rendent possibles la synonymie et sur le discours qui est le lieu de l’émergence du sens. Cela rompt avec la synonymie réduite à la recherche de différences de sens entre items lexicaux synonymes. Une approche onomasiologique et textuelle est mise en place pour proposer un nouveau cadre d’étude de la synonymie. Cette approche se manifeste par la détection de réseaux lexicaux témoignant de relations d’équivalence qui émergent en contexte. Pour tester cette approche, les réseaux lexicaux du vocabulaire du vice et de la vertu sont étudiés dans des textes du XVIIe siècle traitant de thèmes moraux. / This thesis studies theoretical and epistemological aporia of synonymy. These problems are concentrated in the theoretical weakness of synonymy in comparison with its empirical success both in usage and dictionaries. This theoretical weakness originates in the history of the notion: at first, synonymy had been defined by Aristoteles and was afterwards subjected to transformations during the following centuries. With the beginning of modern linguistics, scientific definition of synonymy had been built from the distinctive synonymy of French synonymists. The fundamental notions of modern linguistics, such as the opposition between language and discourse, had been applied to synonymy whereas it had been elaborated before their conception. Synonymy can hardly be submitted to modern linguistics theoretical frameworks without generating theoretical difficulties. The distinctive approach centers the study of synonymy on semantic differences whereas synonymy is based on approximate semantic equivalence. History of synonymy sheds light on aporia and helps to distance from it and to center the notion on the semantic equivalence because they make synonymy possible and on discourse because that is where sense emerges. This breaks off with the synonymy which is solely based on semantic differences between synonymic lexical items. An onomasiological and textual approach is set up to propose a new scientific framework to synonymy: this approach consists in the detection of lexical networks showing semantic relations appearing in context. To test this approach, lexical networks of vice and virtue vocabulary are studied in seventeenth century French texts treating moral themes.