published_or_final_version / Geography and Geology / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

Gymnasieskolans läroplan, Lpf94, framhåller friluftsliv och hälsa som två viktiga inslag i ämnet Idrott och Hälsa. Mitt syfte har varit att studera friluftsliv som en metod för att nå god hälsa. Studien har gjorts genom enkäter med 179 st deltagande elever från åk 1 och åk 3. Dessutom har två idrottslärare och en fritidsvärd intervjuats för att ytterligare ge kunskap om friluftslivets hälsoeffekter. Resultaten från undersökningarna visar att majoriteten av eleverna upplever sig få en bra fysisk, psykisk och social hälsa genom att delta i friluftsliv. Dock finns en viss tendens till att en del elever upplever en ökad stress av att vara långt från samhällets alla tekniska finesser. De intervjuade framhåller också att skolans roll är att erbjuda ett varierat utbud av friluftsaktiviteter, vilket förhoppningsvis leder till att ett bestående intresse uppstår. Samtidigt menar de att de få timmarna friluftsliv som bedrivs i skolans regi, kanske inte påverkar elevernas hälsa i allt för stort utsträckning, men väcks intresset för att fortsätta, ger det mycket positiva effekter på hälsan. Slutsatser från detta är att vi som lärare måste försöka ge ett varierat friluftsliv som inbjuder till möjligheter att varva ner och ge ett intresse för framtiden. / The curriculum for the upper secondary school, Lpf94, states outdoor recreation and health as two important components within the subject Sport and Health. The aim of this paper has been to study outdoor recreation as a method to obtain good health. The study was done with surveys answered by 179 students from year one and year three in the upper secondary school. Two Physical Education teachers and one recreation leader have also been interviewed in order to gain more knowledge about the effects of outdoor recreation on health. The results show that the majority of the students felt that they get a good physical, psychological and social health by participating in outdoor recreation. However, there is a tendency that some students feel more stressed by being far from our high-tech society. The persons who were interviewed pointed at the schools’ task being offering a multitude of outdoor recreation activities, which hopefully will lead to creating a permanent interest. At the same time, they mean that the little time that is spent on outdoor recreation in school, may not affect the health of the students. But if it raises an interest to continue, on the other hand, it will have very positive effect on health. The conclusion which can be drawn from this, is that we teachers must try to offer a variety of outdoor recreation activities which offers possibilities to relax and raise an interest for the future.

I described recreational use in mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis mexicana) habitat in the Pusch Ridge Wilderness (PRW), Tucson, Arizona. I also examined human attitudes held by PRW recreationists and homeowners within 1 mile (1.6 km) of PRW boundary towards several mountain sheep management options. I used geographic information system modeling and social science survey methodology. Recreational use along two trails that traverse mountain sheep habitat was frequent (66 individuals/day use Pima Canyon trail, 26 individuals/day use Romero Canyon trail) and primarily limited to the lower 3 miles (4.8 km) of the trails. Compliance with existing dog leash regulations is low (41.8% on Pima Canyon trail, 62.8% on Romero Canyon trail). Recreationists and homeowners within 1 mile (1.6 km) of PRW support the elimination of dogs within PRW and support planned burns of PRW to improve mountain sheep habitat. Recreationists and homeowners also support closing all or parts of PRW to protect the long term viability (>100 years) of the sheep population. Homeowners within 1 mile (1.6 km) of PRW primarily enjoy passive recreational use of PRW (i.e, viewing the wilderness).

Elderly recreational vehicle campers are attracted to the Lower Colorado River area during the winter season. Their numbers have grown in recent years and many are seeking alternatives to the usual practice of establishing residence in private trailer parks. As a result, various public land sites in the region are being subjected to concentrated winter use. Units in these camping areas represent users who are retired couples or individuals on fixed or limited incomes, living in "self-contained" campers, travel trailers or motor homes. Some of these visitors are utilizing designated campgrounds; others are squatting on the public domain where there are few, if any, sanitary or other facilities. The impact of elderly winter visitors on the public land resource of the Lower Colorado River basin area is varied. An understanding of environmental effects is important, but proposed solutions depend upon our ability to understand the people causing environmental deterioration. Answers have been sought to basic questions about winter visitor characteristics and behavior. The findings were applied toward the development of basic policy recommendations pertinent to appropriate public land management for the desert areas of the Southwest. Of theoretical interest was the evaluation of the relative importance of camping socialization experiences in explaining user behavior. Data were gathered from 580 visitor units during the winter of 1973-74 with a personal interview schedule. Important classes of variables included socio-economic characteristics, camping experience, and users' campground behavior and preferences. Interviews were conducted in seven sites representing various kinds of public and private camping facilities in the region. Discriminant function, correlational, multiple regression and bivariate analyses were utilized to render the collected data meaningful. The basic sub-groups in the sample were distinguished by significant differences in various socio-economic and experiential characteristics. The most important of these were income, education, age, value of mobile quarters, and pre-retirement adult camping experience. Length of stay in public land camping areas was not explained by differences in site characteristics. Differences in visitor characteristics accounted for 40-50% of variation in length of stay. Important predictor variables included income, age, average annual pre-retirement camping experience and the amount of previous recreational vehicle camping without utility and sewerage hookups. Support was evidenced for a basic theoretical orientation: that post-retirement behavior is, in part, a reflection of pre-retirement recreational socialization and leisure life style patterns and persistence. The results suggested certain implications for public land management. Recommendations include the desirability of moving elderly winter camper use to sites away from the Colorado River. High fees imposed along the river would discourage extended-stay winter use and restore a unique resource to the short-term water-oriented visitor. The establishment of a spectrum of "inland" camping sites with varying levels of facilities and fees would serve as a positive inducement to the older winter camper, and restore some order to what has been, in some areas, an uncontrolled camping environment. A public campground on Bureau of Land Management land in Why, Arizona, offers a possible solution to the problems posed by the limited resources available to most public land management agencies. There a parcel of public land has been leased by a non-profit community association and developed into a public campground with basic facilities for elderly winter visitors. Management expenses are met through the imposition of a modest graduated fee schedule which favors the extended-stay camper. In this case a squatting problem has been resolved through local initiative; the public land management agency, with its limited budget, has been spared the expense of development and that of direct management responsibility.

Richmond, Virginia is defined by our connection to the James River. The James River Park system stretches over 550 acres of natural beauty. The park is broken into 14 different sections from the Huguenot Bridge in the west to a half mile beyond the I-95 Bridge in the east. The James River includes water features that appeal to the young and curious to the most experienced river-adventurer. The James River Park System boasts idyllic shorelines, peaceful meadows, and miles of challenging hiking and biking trails that appeal to the community and guests alike. Every year thousands of people come to Richmond for activities and events like the XTerra Races, Dominion RiverRock, the Folk Festival and many more. Amazingly, at this time, there are no convenient downtown or riverfront facilities to allow locals and guests of Richmond to interact with the James River Park system. With use of the Pattern Building at Tredegar Iron Works, this project will combine the ideas of biophilia, and eco-tourism to design a boutique hotel that will cater to outdoor enthusiasts. In addition to guest suites, this boutique hotel will offer an outdoor recreation rental, retail and repair facility that will offer bikes, kayaks, tubes, paddle-boards, climbing equipment and other essentials for outdoor exploration. A small cafe will offer healthy, locally sourced, farm to table snack and drink options. Both indoor and outdoor seating areas and/or lounges will be available for relaxation. The outdoor patio will feature an interactive garden and give guests a place to enjoy scenic views, practice yoga, meditate and relax. In addition this space could be rented to host special events. The term Biophilia was first used by a German-born American psychoanalyst Erich Fromm in The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (1973), which described the term as “the passionate love of life and of all that is alive”. Later the term was used by American biologist Edward O. Wilson in his work Biophilia (1984), that proposed that humans tendency to focus and affiliate with nature and other life-forms has a genetic basis. Humans biologically gravitate toward the rich and diverse shapes, colors and life that exists in the natural world. As we are drawn to the natural world, we also benefit from it. Nature nurtures us and has a positive effect on our health, well-being and happiness. Research led by Yoshifumi Miyazaki at Chiba University sent 84 subjects to stroll in seven different forests, while the same number of people walked city centers. Overall, those who spent time in the forest, showed a 16% decrease in the stress hormone cortisol, a 2% drop in blood pressure, and a 4% drop in heart rate. Although we spend nearly 90% of our lives indoors, those interior environments often do not reflect the characteristics of nature, trigger a positive emotional response, and are not often designed in a sustainable manner. Too often, our surroundings are designed in a way that deteriorate the environment and separate us from the natural world. The built environment of this project will emphasize the human need for contact with nature that is good for physical, emotional and physiological benefit and satisfaction. While Eco-Tourism is not a new concept the popularity of Eco-tourism increased in the 1980’s when large scale educational efforts by the government touted the benefits of conserving and protecting the environment and planet. Eco-Tourism is a piece of the “Green Movement” (scientific, social and political movement addressing environmental issues) but since there has been an increase in information about how people are negatively impacting the planet. The travel industry has been considered a strong influence and a demand for green hotels, restaurants and transportation is on the rise. Eco-Tourism is defined as “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people, and involves interpretation and education”. Tourism often comes with its footprint on the environment. Tourism and hospitality must be sustainable. How can we still enjoy the natural wonders of the world yet minimize our impact? By exploring the concepts of Eco-tourism this project will reflect a positive environment and educate visitors on how to make their own changes. Guests will be encouraged to interact with the natural wonders of Richmond in a low impact manner, so that it may remain for others to enjoy. Research begins by understanding terms like sustainability, Eco-tourism and biophilic design and continues by researching and experiencing examples of them. By studying cases like Frank Lloyd Wrights project “Falling Water” and Mies van der Rohe’s project “Farnworth House,” understanding of a unique connection to the organic environment can occur. By studying Swedish architects Martin Videgard and Bolle Thams project “Tree Hotel” ways to incorporate travel with nature will be discovered. Finally by studying Agence Ter’s project the “Pudong Left Bank” in Shanghai inspiration on how to encourage a city to interact with its natural environment will occur. The goal of this project is to understand the relationship between human and nature and how it can be controlled and how we can benefit from an Interior Environment.

Denna avhandling syftar till att belysa hur friluftsliv och naturturism hanteras i den kommunala fysiska planeringen. Detta diskuteras i relation till myndigheters uttalade policys där vikten av friluftsliv framhålls och allmänhetens attityder till friluftsliv. Syftet är också att föra en diskussion om hur kommunal fysisk planering kan fungera som verktyg för att främja friluftslivets intresse i markanvändningsfrågor. Undersökningen har skett genom enkäter, intervjuer, studier av lagstiftning och myndighetsdokument samt studier av planeringsdokument, främst översiktliga planer, i 11 kommuner som ingår i de tre fallstudieområdena Järvafältet utanför Stockholm, Blekinge skärgård och kustzon och Söderåsen i Skåne. Vid första anblicken kan det framstå som om friluftsliv har ett starkt skydd i den kommunala fysiska planeringen. Det omnämns i Plan- och bygglagen (PBL) som allmänt intresse och i Miljöbalken (MB) som riksintressen och som ett av strandskyddets två syften. Planeringslagstiftningens process- och ramlagskaraktär ger dock flertalet tolkningsbara formuleringar i lagtexten samtidigt som begreppet allmänt intresse är mångtydigt. Både PBL och strandskyddet har också nyligen ändrats så att det i flera frågor ännu inte hunnit etableras någon rättspraxis för tolkning och tillämpning. En av den kommunala fysiska planeringens viktigaste uppgifter är att i markanvändningsfrågor avväga mellan olika allmänna och enskilda intressen. Resultat visar att friluftslivets och naturturismens ställning i kommunal planering varierar mellan kommuner men också mellan planeringsnivåer. En betydande majoritet av kommunerna använder friluftsliv och naturturism i sin marknadsföring. Avvägningsbeslut i markanvändningsfrågor som utfaller till friluftslivets nackdel kan dock ofta motiveras av att ”det finns så mycket grönt” och att friluftsliv därmed bedöms kunna ske någon annanstans än där man vill exploatera. Här kan allemansrätten vara en viktig faktor för denna tolkning. I planeringsdokument förekommer också ofta den rådande planeringsdoktrinen om den täta staden i kombination med hållbarhetsargument. Detta kan ytterligare verka för exploatering av urbana grönytor. Det finns ett behov av fysisk planering som säkerställer mark för friluftsliv. Resultat från den nationella enkätundersökningen Friluftsliv 07 visar att människor värderar rekreationsnatur högt, många till och med så högt att det påverkar deras val av bostadsort. Cirka en sjättedel uppger dock att de saknar lämpliga områden för friluftsliv. Respondenterna anser även att kommunerna behöver bli bättre på att skydda tysta områden. Planeringen behöver också visa en bättre beredskap inför klimatförändringarnas konsekvenser för friluftsliv eftersom många respondenter uttrycker en oro över negativa konsekvenser av ett förändrat klimat men endast cirka var fjärde kommun uppmärksammar detta i den översiktliga planeringen. Huvudhandledare har varit professor Lars Emmelin, Fysisk planering, Blekinge Tekniska Högskola och biträdande handledare professor Klas Sandell, Geografi och turism, Karlstad Universitet. Doktorsavhandlingen togs fram inom ramen för forskningsprojektet Planering för friluftsliv vid Fysisk Planering, Blekinge Tekniska Högskola, Karlskrona. Projektet utgjorde ett av sju delprojekt i det nationella och mångdisciplinära forskningsprogrammet Friluftsliv i Förändring som letts av professor Peter Fredman, Mittuniversitetet och som finansierats av Naturvårdsverket.

"...This interest developed into a four-fold problem: (1) to discover and report the history of the Springtown Independent School District, (2) to show the growth of this school district (3) to discover and report the activities in which the adults and high school students of this community participate and those in which they would like to take part; and (4) to determine the religious, social, and economic standards of the community."

This thesis explores the significance and meaning of the countryside within mid-twentieth century youth movements. Whilst modern youth movements have been the subject of considerable historical research, there has been little attention to the rural context within which so many of them operated. Moreover, few historians have explored youth movements into the post-Second World War period. This thesis therefore makes an original contribution both in terms of its periodisation and focus. It draws on a rich seam of archival and printed sources focusing in particular upon the Boy Scout and Girl Guide movements, the Woodcraft Folk and the Young Farmer's Club movement. The thesis examines the ways in which the countryside was employed as a space within which ‘good citizenship' could be developed. Mid-century youth movements identified the ‘problem' of modern youth as a predominantly urban and working class issue. They held that the countryside offered an effective antidote to these problems: being a ‘good citizen' within this context necessitated a respectful and mutually beneficial relationship with the rural sphere. Avenues to good citizenship could be found through an enthusiasm for outdoor recreation, the stewardship of the countryside and work on the land. Models of good citizenship were intrinsically gendered. Girls were trained for their domestic role within the home, although this was a specifically rural form of domesticity. Chapter One explores the shifting relationship between the urban public and the countryside in the mid-century and argues that the popularity of outdoor recreation developed understandings of citizenship that were directly linked to the English countryside. For youth this country-conscious citizenship could be developed in three spheres: leisure, work and the home. Chapter Two examines the approach of youth movements to youthful leisure across the mid-century and, using concern for the juvenile delinquent as a case study, argues that through physical and mental improvement the countryside could prevent misbehaviour. Parallel to this youth movements instilled an understanding of ‘good' countryside manners and encouraged members to protect the countryside from the onslaught of urban pleasureseekers. Chapter Three explores the importance of agricultural work in meanings of ‘good citizenry' arguing that for both urban and rural boys proficiency in farming, particularly in wartime, was considered an important service to the nation. Chapter Four investigates how the sphere of the home remained central to understandings of ‘good citizenship' for girls and suggests that the distinct nature of rural domesticity should be considered here. It also considers the place of youth movements within the gendered lifecycle, understandings of female deviance and issues of agency in leisure provision for girls in the mid-century. This thesis argues that, fundamentally, the mid-century period should be seen as one of continuity in the training of youth movements. The central role of the countryside in categorisations of ‘good citizenry' supports recent understandings of a rural national identity in the mid-century. Furthermore, approaches to youth were clearly divided in terms of both class and gender. While concerns over the working classes did shift at this time understandings of innate working class deviance remained. Moreover, the persistence of gendered understandings of citizenship and the emphasis on domesticity for girls suggests that gender remained central to experiences of youth movements in the mid twentieth-century.

The city of Moab, an outdoor recreation hub in eastern Utah, has been encountering both shifts in the seasonality of visitation, and increases in tourist visitation, even with summer temperatures above the normal high. Tourism research describing the effects of climate change on the outdoor recreation industry has focused on winter, snow-dependent activities, while studies in Moab city have focused on the economic value of outdoor recreational activities. Few studies have described the relationship between seasonal tourism and climate change for arid desert locations. The purpose of this study is to describe how the tourism and recreation industry in Moab, Utah is experiencing and adapting to changes in climate. The first part of the research is a regression analysis of existing data, exploring the correlation between monthly national park visitation and climate factors (long-term monthly average temperature and temperature anomaly) that influence tourism seasonality in Arches National Park and Canyonlands National Park. Using an online survey, the second part of the research identifies how seasonality shifts are perceived by different actors in Moab and how they are responding to manifestations of climate change. Regression results indicate that as temperature increases in the region around Moab, national park visitation also increases. Moab businesses are not directly adapting to climate change, but are adapting to perceived increases in visitation throughout the year. The majority of Moab businesses do not attribute the increase in visitation to climate variables, instead visitation increases are believed to be a result of the popularity of the town and the region.

The causes of conflict among users of outdoor recreation resources have received little attention from recreation researchers. Knowledge of factors responsible for conflict might assist recreation planners' attempts to reduce future instances of conflict and help management focus its conflict resolution efforts. A theory of conflict is offered as the first step in systematically procuring such knowledge. A definition and characteristics of outdoor recreation conflicts are presented; four comprehensive causes of user conflicts are proposed. Ten propositions are used to link these factors to conflict and suggest future research hypotheses. The social psychological dynamics of conflict, as described here, have implications for understanding the sources of user dissatisfaction. In part two, 120 interviews, taken from two conflict situations involving mechanized and nonmechanized forms of recreation, were used to examine the heuristic value of the theory's concepts. A case study format was used for the analysis. The interviews demonstrated a need to distinguish between potential and felt, or experienced, conflict, due to the latter's dependence on a chance social interaction. Nonmechanized users displayed a high conflict potential, indicated by conflict avoidance behavior, which reduced reports of felt conflict. Fewer mechanized users expressed felt conflict. Stereotyping of the opposite group's lifestyle was found in both cases, as was a lack of intergroup communication. A negative evaluation of the other group's lifestyle seems inherent in such stereotypes. Opposing groups sought different outcomes from interacting with a natural environment though backcountry vehicle users showed a more diverse set of interactions than the literature or stereotypes suggest. Users demonstrated possessiveness for a particular recreation place--this orientation may also exist for categories of places such as National Parks. The findings support the contention that differences in lifestyle, modes of experiencing natural environments, and resource specificity are factors responsible for conflict and worthy of future research.