Sexual development begins with the process by which the bipotential gonads of the embryonic urogenital ridge develop into either testes or ovaries. In the mouse, sex determination occurs at around 11.5 dpc and depends on the presence or absence of the Y chromosome and the associated activity of the testis-determining gene, Sry, in supporting cell precursors. The mutually antagonistic male and female developmental pathways are regulated by many cellular and molecular processes, disruption of which can lead to disorders of sex development (DSDs). However, many of the molecular mechanisms regulating the differentiation of the two gonads are still unknown. The boygirl (byg) mutant was identified in an ENU-based forward genetic screen for embryos with gonadal abnormalities. On the C57BL/6J background, XY byg/byg homozygotes exhibited complete embryonic gonadal sex reversal. The defective gene in byg, Map3k4, is a component of the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signalling pathway and provides the first evidence for a function of this pathway in sex determination. This thesis describes experiments aimed at investigating the cellular and molecular basis of the sex reversal phenotype associated with the XY Map3k^4byg/byg mutant. Cellular characterisations revealed a defect in male-specific proliferation at 11.5 dpc, which was attributed to a defect in Sry up-regulation. Elucidation of the downstream kinases activated by MAP3K4 during sex determination was attempted, with particular focus on identifying a role for p38α MAP kinase (MAPK). Using a conditional knockout approach, the function of p38α in Steroidogenic factor-1 (Sf1)-positive somatic cells was assessed. However, specific inactivation in these cells did not affect gonad development. Conditional inactivation of Map3k4 itself in these Sf1¬-positive cells also did not disrupt gonad development, suggesting that this pathway is either initiated in a different cell lineage or at an earlier stage than deletion driven by Sf1-Cre can disrupt. Conditional inactivation of p38α in the Müllerian duct mesenchyme and ovarian granulosa cells using Amhr2-Cre did reveal a function for p38α in female fertility, but did not disrupt embryonic sexual development. Gene knockdown in organ culture was attempted to determine a role for multiple p38 MAPKs in all cell types of the gonad. Therefore, this thesis details further characterisations of a novel signalling pathway important for the expression of Sry, focussing on the role of the p38 MAPKs.

L’évolution des populations occidentales s’accompagne d’une augmentation de la sédentarité et des maladies métaboliques qui accroissent les problèmes de santé. Ces évolutions ont des répercussions sur le muscle squelettique qui voit sa capacité à produire de l’énergie aérobie diminuer. Néanmoins, le muscle squelettique est très plastique et les capacités oxydatives musculaires s’améliorent rapidement par l'activité physique. Les mitochondries sont des éléments majeurs des capacités oxydatives musculaires et la compréhension des mécanismes moléculaires qui régissent la biogenèse et la fonction mitochondriale est nécessaire pour prescrire au mieux l’activité physique.L’exercice intermittent semble être de plus en plus utilisé dans la pratique. Plusieurs arguments sont mis en avant pour préconiser cette modalité : 1) le temps passé à haute consommation d’oxygène, 2) la haute intensité et 3) les perturbations métaboliques induites par les variations d’intensité au cours de l’exercice. Cependant, l’influence des perturbations métaboliques sur les capacités oxydatives musculaires n’a pas encore été clairement démontrée. L’objet des mes travaux de thèse s’est donc focalisé sur ces perturbations métaboliques et leurs effets sur les voies de signalisation impliquées dans la biogenèse mitochondriale. Afin de caractériser l’implication des perturbations métaboliques dans la stimulation des voies de signalisation de la biogenèse mitochondriale, nous avons comparé l’influence d’exercices aigus sur ces voies de signalisation. Deux protocoles nous ont permis d’investiguer l’influence des variations métaboliques. Le premier a consisté, lors d’un exercice de intermittent, à identifier la durée du cycle induisant les plus grandes perturbations métaboliques et à caractériser les effets de la modalité d’exercice sur un exercice de 30 minutes de pédalage à 70%WRpic. Le second protocole visait à déterminer l’influence de la répétition des perturbations métaboliques sur les voies de signalisation régulant la biogenèse mitochondriale.Afin d’identifier la durée de cycle produisant le plus de variations métaboliques, nous avons analysé l’évolution de la consommation d’oxygène et quantifié les variations métaboliques. Pour cela nous avons utilisé trois paramètres : 1) un paramètre quantitatif, 2) un paramètre qualitatif et 3) un index associant les paramètres quantitatif et qualitatif. La comparaison de trois durées de cycle différentes (30s d’effort:30s de récupération passive ; 60s:60s et 120s:120s) nous a permis de mettre en évidence que la modalité 60s:60s est celle qui induit le plus de variations métaboliques et cela pour une dépense énergétique identique pour les trois modalités.Notre seconde étude a consisté à comparer 30 minutes de pédalage à 70%WRpic sous deux modalités différentes : continue (1 bloc de 30min) et intermittente (30 bloc de 1min entrecoupés de 1min). La répétition de phase d’exercice et de repos lors de l’exercice intermittent créée plus de perturbation du métabolisme et entraîne une phosphorylation supérieure de l'AMPK, CaMKII et p38 MAPK. Ces kinases sont situées en amont de PGC-1α, un important régulateur de la biogenèse mitochondriale dans le muscle squelettique. Ces résultats mettent donc en évidence un effet spécifique des perturbations métaboliques sur les voies de signalisation contrôlant la biogenèse mitochondriale.Ces travaux ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives sur les méthodes de réentraînement de personnes sédentaires ou atteintes de pathologie chronique. Les futurs travaux viseront à confirmer nos résultats lors d’interventions chroniques et d’explorer ces effets chez différentes populations. / Western life evolution is associated with an increase in sedentary behaviours and metabolic diseases leading to health alteration. This evolution affects the skeletal muscle, which is characterized by a decrease in its ability to produce aerobic energy. However, skeletal muscle is a highly malleable tissue, capable of considerable metabolic adaptations in response to physical activity. Mitochondria produce the aerobic energy within the skeletal muscle. Understanding the molecular mechanisms that regulate mitochondrial biogenesis and its function is necessary to improve physical activity prescription.The intermittent exercise is currently used in rehabilitation programs. Several arguments are put forward to utilizing this method: 1) the time spent at high oxygen consumption, 2) the high intensity of exercise and 3) the metabolic disturbances induced by variations of intensity during exercise. However, the influence of metabolic disturbances on muscle oxidative capacity has not been clearly demonstrated. The purpose of my thesis work has therefore focused on these metabolic perturbations and their effects on signalling pathways involved in mitochondrial biogenesis. In order to characterize the influence of metabolic disturbances on the signalling pathways involved in mitochondrial biogenesis, we compared the influence of acute exercises. We realized two protocols to investigate the influence of metabolic disturbances. The first study compared three intermittent exercises in order to identify the optimal duty-cycle duration to induce the biggest metabolic disturbances and to compare metabolic responses of intermittent and continuous exercise performed at 70%WRpic. The second protocol evaluated the influence of the repetition of metabolic disturbances on signalling pathways involved in mitochondrial biogenesis.In order to identify the duty-cycle duration producing more metabolic fluctuations, we analysed the changes of oxygen consumption and quantified metabolic variations. We used three parameters: 1) a quantitative parameter, 2) a qualitative parameter, and 3) an index combining quantitative and qualitative parameters. Comparison of three different duty-cycle durations (30s work:30s passive recovery; 60s:60s, and 120s:120s) revealed that the 60s:60s modality induces more metabolic fluctuations for a same energy expenditure.Our second study compared 30 minutes of pedalling at 70%WRpic realized by two different modalities: continuous (30min 1 block) and intermittent (30 1min block interspersed by 1min of passive recovery). Repetition of transitions from rest to exercise during the intermittent exercise creates higher metabolic disturbances and leads to a higher phosphorylation of AMPK, p38 MAPK and CaMKII. These kinases are upstream of PGC-1α, an important regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle. All together, these results demonstrate that metabolic disturbances are involved in mitochondrial signalling pathways activation.This work opens up new perspectives on exercise training prescription for sedentary or chronic pathology people. Future work will aim to confirm our results in chronic interventions and explore these effects in different populations.

IL-12 family cytokines IL-23 and IL-27 play an important role linking innate and adaptive immunity, and regulating T-cell responses. The production of IL-12, a structurally similar cytokine, is decreased in chronic HIV infection; therefore IL-23 and IL-27 may also be influenced by HIV infection. I hypothesized that HIV inhibits LPS-induced IL-23 and IL-27 production in human MDMs by suppressing the activation of signalling pathways regulating their expression. In vitro HIV-infection of MDMs did not have any effect on basal secretion of IL-23 or IL-27; however, HIV inhibited LPS-induced production of IL-12/23 p40 and IL-23 p19, and IL-27 EBI3 and IL-27 p28 mRNA expression, and IL-23, IL-12/23 p40 and IL-27 secretion. In order to evaluate the molecular mechanisms by which HIV inhibits IL-23 and IL-27 in LPS-stimulated MDMs, the signalling pathways regulating their expression were evaluated. The PI3K, p38 MAPK, and JNK MAPK pathways were found to positively regulate LPS-induced IL-27 secretion. Interestingly, in vitro HIV infection inhibited LPS-induced p38 and JNK MAPK activation in MDMs. In summary, I have shown that HIV inhibits IL-23 and IL-27 production in LPS-stimulated MDMs and that HIV may inhibit LPS-induced IL-27 production through the inhibition of p38 and JNK MAPK activation. It is currently unknown whether PKCs regulate LPS-induced IL-23 or IL-27 in human monocytes/macrophages. I demonstrated that classical PKCs differentially regulate LPS-induced IL-23 and IL-27 secretion within THP-1 cells, primary monocytes, and MDMs. Classical PKCs were found to positively regulate LPS-induced IL-12/23 p40 and IL-27 p28 mRNA expression and IL-12/23 p40, IL-23, and IL-27 secretion in primary human monocytes. Similarly, the classical PKCs were found to positively regulate IL-27 p28 mRNA expression and IL-27 secretion in THP-1 cells. However, classical PKCs did not regulate LPS-induced IL-27 production in MDMs, or LPS-induced IL-23 production in THP-1 cells. Overall, this demonstrates that classical PKCs differentially regulate LPS-induced IL-23 and IL-27 production in different myeloid cells.

The enzyme phospholipase A2 (PLA2) specifically hydrolyzes the 2-acyl ester bond of 1,2-diacyl-3-sn-phosphoglycerides releasing fatty acids and lysophospholipids in the presence of Ca2+. Both products represent precursors for signaling molecules that can exert a multitude of biological functions including phospholipid metabolism, exocytosis and inflammation. Consequently, PLA2 not only plays a role in regulating physiological processes, but also exhibits pharmacological effects in inflammatory diseases. Nevertheless, the signaling pathway leading to cell death still remains elusive. In the present study, the cytotoxicity of Naja naja atra PLA2 toward human neuroblastoma SK-N-SH cells and leukemia K562 cells were respectively evaluated to explore the signaling pathway of PLA2-induced cell death. Upon exposure to PLA2, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) or c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation, extracellularsignal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) inactivation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration, the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (£G£Zm), cytochrome c release and upregulation of Fas/FasL were found in SK-N-SH or K562 cells. N-Acetylcysteine (ROS scavenger), BAPTA-AM (Ca2+ chelator), SB202190 (p38 MAPK inhibitor) or SP600125 (JNK inhibitor) abrogated p38 MAPK or JNK activation and rescued cell viability, £G£Zm, cytochrome c release and suppressed Fas/FasL upregulation of PLA2-treated cells, but restored phosphorylation of ERK. Activated ERK was found to attenuate p38 MAPK-mediated upregulation of Fas/FasL. Besides, sustained JNK activation was also observed in SB202190/PLA2-treated K562 cells after exterminating p38 MAPK activation, but also retained the cytotoxicity of PLA2. Knockdown of p38 MAPK or JNK1 by siRNA proved that PLA2 induced Fas/FasL upregulation through p38 MAPK/ATF-2 or JNK1/c-Jun pathways in K562 cells. Furthermore, deprivation of catalytic activity could not diminish PLA2-induced cell death and Fas/FasL upregulation. The cytotoxicity of arachidonic acid (AA) and lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) was not related to the expression of Fas/FasL. The results showed that the cytotoxicity of AA is mediated through mitochondria-dependent death pathway, eliciting by AA-induced ROS generation and Ca2+-evoked activation of p38 MAPK and JNK. Besides, ERK activation abrogated by U0126 improved the ability of AA-mediated Fas/FasL upregulation in K562 cells. Taken together, our results indicate that PLA2-induced cell death is through Ca2+- and ROS evoked p38 MAPK or JNK activation. Upregulation of Fas/FasL partially involves in cytotoxicity of PLA2.

The survival for high-grade glioma patients is poor and the treatment may cause severe side effects. A common obstacle in the treatment is chemoresistance. To improve the quality of life and prolong survival for these patients prognostic biomarkers and new approaches for chemotherapy are needed. To this end, a strategy to evade chemoresistance was evaluated by combining chemotherapeutic drugs with agents inhibiting resistance mechanisms identified by a bioinformatic analysis (paper I). The prognostic value of 13 different proteins was analyzed in this thesis (papers II-IV). Two of them, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 6 (PTPN6, also known as SHP1) were analyzed for their potential as targets in combination chemotherapy (in paper III and IV, respectively).   We found that: PTPN6 expression and methylation status may be important for survival of anaplastic glioma patients, p38 MAPK phosphorylation may be a potential negative prognostic biomarker for high-grade glioma patients and FGF2 expression may be a potential negative prognostic biomarker for proneural glioma patients. PTPN6 may be a useful target for combination chemotherapy with cisplatin, melphalan or bortezomib in high-grade gliomas. The following drug combinations; camptothecin combined with an EGFR or RAC1 inhibitor, imatinib combined with a Notch or RAC1 inhibitor, temozolomide combined with an EGFR or FAK inhibitor and vandetanib combined with a p38 MAPK inhibitor may be useful combination chemotherapy for high-grade gliomas.

IL-12 family cytokines IL-23 and IL-27 play an important role linking innate and adaptive immunity, and regulating T-cell responses. The production of IL-12, a structurally similar cytokine, is decreased in chronic HIV infection; therefore IL-23 and IL-27 may also be influenced by HIV infection. I hypothesized that HIV inhibits LPS-induced IL-23 and IL-27 production in human MDMs by suppressing the activation of signalling pathways regulating their expression. In vitro HIV-infection of MDMs did not have any effect on basal secretion of IL-23 or IL-27; however, HIV inhibited LPS-induced production of IL-12/23 p40 and IL-23 p19, and IL-27 EBI3 and IL-27 p28 mRNA expression, and IL-23, IL-12/23 p40 and IL-27 secretion. In order to evaluate the molecular mechanisms by which HIV inhibits IL-23 and IL-27 in LPS-stimulated MDMs, the signalling pathways regulating their expression were evaluated. The PI3K, p38 MAPK, and JNK MAPK pathways were found to positively regulate LPS-induced IL-27 secretion. Interestingly, in vitro HIV infection inhibited LPS-induced p38 and JNK MAPK activation in MDMs. In summary, I have shown that HIV inhibits IL-23 and IL-27 production in LPS-stimulated MDMs and that HIV may inhibit LPS-induced IL-27 production through the inhibition of p38 and JNK MAPK activation. It is currently unknown whether PKCs regulate LPS-induced IL-23 or IL-27 in human monocytes/macrophages. I demonstrated that classical PKCs differentially regulate LPS-induced IL-23 and IL-27 secretion within THP-1 cells, primary monocytes, and MDMs. Classical PKCs were found to positively regulate LPS-induced IL-12/23 p40 and IL-27 p28 mRNA expression and IL-12/23 p40, IL-23, and IL-27 secretion in primary human monocytes. Similarly, the classical PKCs were found to positively regulate IL-27 p28 mRNA expression and IL-27 secretion in THP-1 cells. However, classical PKCs did not regulate LPS-induced IL-27 production in MDMs, or LPS-induced IL-23 production in THP-1 cells. Overall, this demonstrates that classical PKCs differentially regulate LPS-induced IL-23 and IL-27 production in different myeloid cells.

En France, le cancer de la prostate est le premier cancer par son incidence ainsi que la troisième cause de mortalité pour cette pathologie. La progression de la maladie est dépendante des androgènes. Ainsi l’un des traitements majeurs du cancer de la prostate est la déprivation androgénique : le blocage de la production ou de l’action des androgènes conduit à inhiber la croissance tumorale. La plupart des patients répondent à cette thérapie, cependant l’évolution de la pathologie vers un stade d’insensibilité à la castration est inévitable, ce qui est associé à un mauvais pronostic. Au cours de la progression du cancer de la prostate, la voie de signalisation des androgènes demeure active grâce au récepteur des androgènes. Ce récepteur est une cible idéale afin de traiter et de bloquer la progression tumorale. Une telle inhibition du récepteur des androgènes peut être faite par l’utilisation d’un anti-androgènes de seconde génération : l’Enzalutamide. Cette molécule perturbe l’interaction entre le récepteur des androgènes et son ligand, elle peut bloquer la translocation nucléaire du récepteur activé mais elle empêche aussi son interaction avec l’ADN. Bien que l’utilisation de l’Enzalutamide ait contribué à améliorer la survie des patients, son utilisation conduit à l’émergence d’une résistance à l’Enzalutamide, ce qui constitue un défi thérapeutique considérable.L’objectif principal de mes travaux de thèse est d’identifier de nouvelles protéines afin d’améliorer les effets thérapeutiques de l’Enzalutamide ou de surmonter la résistance à ce médicament. Ainsi dans notre étude, nous avons supposé que le traitement à l’Enzalutamide induit l’activation de voies de signalisation spécifiques, pouvant être impliquées soit dans le mécanisme d’action du médicament ou dans la résistance à ce dernier. Cette hypothèse nous a conduit à l’identification des protéines MAPKs p38, qui sont activées lors d’un traitement avec l’Enzalutamide. Nos résultats démontrent que la combinaison d’Enzalutamide et d’inhibiteur de la MAPK p38 a un effet antitumoral significatif aussi bien in vitro que in vivo. Le mécanisme d’action de cet effet cytotoxique et synergique reste à l’étude. Ces données permettraient d’approfondir la compréhension des mécanismes de résistance lors d’un traitement à l’Enzalutamide et contribuer à la potentialisation de l’effet thérapeutique de cet antiandrogènes. / In France, prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed male cancer and its progression is tightly associated with the androgen signals. One of the major treatments for prostate cancer is androgen deprivation therapy which is based on blocking the production or action of the androgens to induce a tumor growth inhibition. Most patients respond to this therapy, however they still reach a castration-resistant stage which is associated with a poor prognosis. Since the progression till this late cancer stage is still driven by the androgen signaling pathway, the second-line therapy is focused on targeting the active androgen receptor by using a second-generation anti-androgens: the Enzalutamide. This molecule disrupts the interaction between the androgen receptor and its ligand, it can block the nuclear translocation of the receptor and it also prevents the receptor interaction with DNA. Although Enzalutamide treatment has enhance the patient survival, some drug resistance still arises which is a considerable therapeutic challenge.The main objective of my thesis is to identify new proteins in order to improve the therapeutic effects of Enzalutamide or to overcome resistance to this drug. Thus, in our study, we assumed that Enzalutamide treatment induces the activation of specific signaling pathways which may be involved in the cancer cell response to the treatment. This hypothesis led us to identify the MAPKs p38 proteins, which are activated during treatment with Enzalutamide. Our results show that the combination of Enzalutamide and p38 inhibitor has a significant antitumor effect both in vitro and in vivo. The mechanism of action of this cytotoxic and synergistic effect remains under study. These data would allow a better understanding of the Enzalutamide resistance mechanisms and contribute to the enhancement of the therapeutic effect of this anti-androgen.

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