Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), an invasive agricultural pest from Asia, has established in much of the USA, where it has had significant, deleterious impacts on the production of various specialty crops. Trissolcus japonicus (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) is the predominant egg parasitoid of H. halys in Asia and considered a potential agent for classical biological control. Adventive T. japonicus populations have been detected in 15 US states since 2014 and its continued spread is anticipated, creating the impetus for developing optimized sampling methods for it that are informed by its foraging ecology. Yellow sticky cards (YSC) deployed in the lower and mid-canopy of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle trees in Virginia captured statistically equivalent numbers of T. japonicus. Season-long monitoring of T. japonicus and H. halys over two seasons resulted in significant correlations between captures of T. japonicus and H. halys adults, second instar nymphs, and all life stages combined, revealing spatiotemporal synchrony between the parasitoid and its host. Inspection of felled pheromone-baited and non-baited A. altissima showed no effect of baiting with the H. halys aggregation pheromone on H. halys egg mass abundance. Similarly, captures of T. japonicus in pheromone-baited and non-baited trees were not significantly different. Augmenting YSC with H. halys egg masses or n-tridecane did not improve T. japonicus captures. Together, these results should improve the efficiency of T. japonicus surveillance efforts and provide important guidance for future research toward enhancing the sensitivity of sampling tools for it and the interpretation of its impacts on H. halys. / Master of Science in Life Sciences / The brown marmorated stink bug (BMSB), Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), an invasive species from Asia, has become widely distributed throughout the United States as a serious pest of many important crops. Parasitic wasps that develop on eggs are often key natural enemies for reducing stink bug populations. The samurai wasp, Trissolcus japonicus (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae), is the primary parasitic wasp of BMSB in Asia and is under evaluation for potential use in biological control programs. Populations of samurai wasps have been detected in the United States since 2014 without intentional introduction. Its continued spread is anticipated, creating the need for effective sampling methods to track its establishment. Yellow sticky cards (YSC) deployed in the lower and mid-canopy of tree of heaven in Virginia captured similar numbers of samurai wasps. Season-long monitoring of samurai wasps and BMSB over two seasons resulted in significant correlations between captures of samurai wasps and BMSB adults, second instar nymphs, and all life stages combined, revealing spatiotemporal overlap between the wasp and its host. Inspection of felled pheromone-baited and non-baited tree of heaven showed no effect of baiting with the BMSB aggregation pheromone on numbers of BMSB egg masses. Similarly, captures of samurai wasps in pheromone-baited and non-baited trees were not significantly different. Combining YSC with BMSB egg masses or n-tridecane did not improve samurai wasp captures. Together, these results provide important guidance for future research toward enhancing the sensitivity of sampling tools for samurai wasps and the interpretation of its impacts on BMSB.

La manipulation du comportement de l'hôte est une stratégie couramment utilisée chez les organismes parasites, et ce afin de favoriser leur transmission et/ou leur survie. La compréhension d'une telle stratégie est au cœur de plusieurs disciplines appliquées de la parasitologie, telles que l'épidémiologie et la médecine, mais est aussi d'une grande importance d'un point de vue écologique et évolutif. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, notre objectif était d'améliorer l'état des connaissances sur un type de manipulation encore très peu connu : la manipulation garde du corps, une stratégie initialement décrite chez les insectes parasitoïdes. À la suite de leur développement larvaire, certaines guêpes parasitoïdes (Braconidae) ont la capacité d'usurper le comportement de leur hôte et l'obligent ainsi à se comporter comme un véritable garde du corps pour protéger leur cocon des ennemis naturels. Basé sur le système associant la guêpe parasitoïde Dinocampus coccinellae et un de ses hôtes la coccinelle maculée Coleomegilla maculata, le présent travail aborde cinq aspects particuliers de la manipulation parasitaire : i) Efficacité de la protection par un garde du corps et coûts liés à une telle stratégie, ii) Contraintes énergétiques pour les parasites manipulateurs, iii) Diversité et l'évolution de la manipulation garde du corps, iv) Survie des hôtes à la manipulation par un parasitoïde et v) Effets de la nutrition de l'hôte sur une association hôte–parasitoïde manipulateur. Nos résultats apportent plusieurs éléments de réponse quant à l'écologie et l'évolution de la manipulation garde du corps, et notamment en ce qui a trait aux coûts énergétiques associés à une telle stratégie ainsi qu'au rôle de la ressource dans cette étroite association. De nouvelles perspectives de recherche y sont proposées afin d'encourager d'autres travaux dans cette voie. / Host behavioral manipulation, a widespread strategy among parasitic organisms, has evolved to favor the transmission and/or survival of parasites. Understanding such a strategy is at the heart of applied aspects of parasitology, such as epidemiology and medicine, but is also important for evolutionary and ecological reasons. The aim of this study was to improve our knowledge on a category of manipulation that remains poorly documented: the bodyguard manipulation, initially described on parasitoid insects. Following their larval development, certain parasitic wasps (Braconidae) are able to usurp the behavior of their host and force them to serve as bodyguards to protect parasitoid cocoon against natural enemies. Studying the association between the parasitic wasp Dinocampus coccinellae and one of its host the spotted lady beetle Coleomegilla maculata, this work is structured in five axes: i) Efficiency of the bodyguard protection and associated costs, ii) Energetic constraints for manipulative parasites, iii) Diversity and evolution of bodyguard manipulation, iv) Host survival from parasitism and v) Host nutrition effects on a host–manipulative parasitoid association. Our results provide original findings about the ecology and evolution of the bodyguard manipulation, for instance the energetic costs associated with host manipulation or the role of host nutrition in this type of association. New perspectives are identified in order to stimulate future research in this area.

Thesis (MScAgric (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / Codling moth (CM), Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is the major pest of apples and pears in the South Western Cape, South Africa. Apart from conventional insecticide sprays, area-wide biologically intensive control methods, such as Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) and pheromone mediated mating disruption (MD) are currently in use on two farms in the Elgin valley. The indigenous parasitoid Trichogrammatoidea lutea Girault (Hymentoptera: Trichogrammatidae) attacks eggs of false codling moth (FCM), Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), as well as CM and has been found to have considerable parasitism potential on both. Elevated host egg numbers, as achieved by SIT are thought to support establishment of populations of these natural enemies in the orchards. For rapid and secure Trichogrammatoidea species identification, the ITS2 sequences of Trichogrammatoidea lutea and T. cryptophlebiae Nagaraja (an indigenous FCM parasitoid on citrus) were determined and species specific primers were developed. Lifetable studies of T. lutea indicated an optimal temperature for reproduction at around 20 °C. Food was provided by the application of honey-solution soaked cotton wool, behind fine netting. The effect of food provision by this method was found to be dependent on temperature. The acceptance of CM eggs from sterilized vs. fertile parents and of radiation-sterilized eggs vs. fertile ones was assessed in choice trials. While no difference was observed between radiated and fertile eggs, sterile eggs from irradiated parents were significantly less attractive than eggs from fertile parents. In several field studies the dispersal capacity and population sustainability of released T. lutea were investigated. Trials took place in apple and pear orchards in the Elgin valley that formed part of an area-wide sterile CM SIT program. Most of the wasp releases were carried out within blocks of up to 1 ha. A square grid of up to 36 monitoring trees per block allowed spatial distribution analysis. Following single central point releases, parasitism of sentinel eggs was recorded until the end of all experiments, the longest of which lasted 37 weeks. T. lutea females were found to disperse up to 73 m, within one week. Studies concerning toxicity of four commonly used insecticides and one fungicide to immature and adult T. lutea indicated no to low susceptibility of wasps at egg- to first-instar-stage within host eggs. Contact toxicity of the tested materials to adults differed significantly, depending on the compound. All five pesticides caused significantly higher mortality among adults relative to the control. The overall aim of above studies was to determine the potential of T. lutea for broad-scale releases against CM, within a broader integrated pest management program in apple and pear orchards in the Western Cape.

Trade-offs in resource allocation underlie key life history traits of organisms. My dissertation focuses on the size-number trade-off in clonal broods of offspring using the polyembryonic wasp, Copidosoma bakeri parasitizing immature stages of the moth Agrotis ipsilon. I aim to characterize responses of wasp brood size and individual body mass by manipulating the environments in order to understand the allocation pattern in the size number trade-off. In reviewing the functional forms of trade-off relationships in relation to resource constraints, I distinguish among three main trade-off types based on graphical representations of the relationship between the trade-off variables: linear, convex (inverse), and concave. The size-number trade-off in C. bakeri shows convex relationship. Characteristics of the trade-off are sex specific: female broods have larger body mass but smaller brood size than do male broods. When food intake of the host was increased, the trade-off between wasp body mass and brood size for both sexes shifts toward both higher wasp brood size and higher body mass. When the host has better access to food late in development, the size-number trade-off curve moves up and to the right on the graph. However, the trait combinations shift along the same trade-off curve toward greater wasp body mass but smaller brood size when the host development time is shorter due to more resources in early in development. I also investigate temperature effects on the size-number trade-off. C. bakeri brood size significantly increases with high temperature early in host development. There is no shift in the allocation pattern of the size-number trade-off with temperature. Finally, I test effects of body mass on longevity, fecundity, and mating competitiveness of C. bakeri. Larger body size increases female longevity, and mated females produce more eggs than unmated females. There are no significant relationships between male body mass and longevity or mating competitiveness. Mating reduces male longevity independent of body mass. The different impact of body mass on fitness between male and female wasps suggests the observed sex-specific allocation patterns of the size-number trade-off. Implications of the experiments and possible follow-up work are discussed.

Endosymbiosis is a pervasive phenomenon that has been a powerful force in insect evolution. In many well studied insect-bacterial associations, the bacteria can serve as reproductive manipulators, nutritional mutualists or defenders of their hosts. Fungi are also frequently associated with insects, and initial estimates suggest that these fungi are hyperdiverse. Saving a handful of examples, however, the functions of these fungi within insect hosts are largely unknown. This dissertation begins with a review that lays the conceptual groundwork for understanding bacterial and fungal endosymbiosis in insects. I make predictions about why one versus the other microbe might serve the insect, given any unique physiological, ecological or evolutionary conditions. I then aim to derive insights about microbial symbiosis by focusing on a particular system, that of brownbanded cockroaches, Supella longipalpa (Blattaria: Blattellidae) and their specialist wasp parasitoids, Comperia merceti (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Here, I identify the symbiotic community of these two insects by using both culture-dependent and independent methods to characterize the vertically transmitted bacterial and fungal associates. Finally, I show that a heritable fungus in C. merceti, long presumed to be a mutualist, is parasitic under laboratory conditions: infected wasps incur fitness costs for housing the fungal symbiont relative to uninfected wasps. Additionally, although the fungus is not horizontally transmitted sexually, it is readily horizontally transmitted from the offspring of infected females to those of uninfected females that are using the same host.

Les Hyménoptères parasitoïdes ont un développement larvaire s'effectuant au détriment d'un organisme hôte. Pour exploiter au mieux la ressource que représente un hôte arthropode dont la biologie peut présenter certains obstacles tels que la mobilité et le système immunitaire, les parasitoïdes ont développé une diversité modes de vie et de stratégies de virulence. Ce manuscrit replace les parasitoïdes dans leur contexte évolutif afin de mieux comprendre la diversité surprenante de leurs modes de vie. Ces modes de vie conditionnent la nature des interactions dans les systèmes hôte/parasitoïde. Nous verrons comment, par l'utilisation de nombreux facteurs de virulence tel que le venin, les polydnavirus et bien d'autres encore, les parasitoïdes manipulent la physiologie de leur hôte afin de le rendre adéquat à leur propre développement. Ce travail s'est intéressé au modèle endoparasitoïde Hyposoter didymator (Hym., Ichneumonidae). Nous avons ainsi caractérisé les protéines produites dans la glande à venin des femelles et identifié l'ensemble des gènes du polydnavirus associé (HdIV; H. didymator Ichnovirus), grâce à des techniques de protéomique, génomique et transcriptomique. Nous avons également suivi et quantifié les altérations de la physiologie de l'hôte Spodoptera frugiperda au cours du parasitisme et évalué le rôle relatif de différents facteurs dans ces perturbations et dans la réussite parasitaire. Nos résultats ont permis de montrer que seul le fluide du calice contenant HdIV est nécessaire au développement du parasitoïde. En parallèle, nous avons mis à jour une propriété immuno-évasive des œufs d'H. didymator liée à des protéines associées à l'exochorion. L'ensemble de ce travail a permis de dessiner un élégant schéma expliquant la complémentarité spatio-temporelle des facteurs de virulence durant le parasitisme. Finalement, nous avons cherché à mieux comprendre le déterminisme du spectre d'hôte d'H. didymator, ce qui nous a conduit à montrer que les deux stratégies de contournement de la réponse immunitaire (immuno-évasion et infection virale) se révèlent inefficaces chez les hôtes non-permissifs. / Parasitic wasps must deal with physiological features of their host such as mobility, an efficient immune system and a variable metabolism. To ensure successful parasitism in a large range of arthropod hosts, parasitoids display a huge diversity of lifestyle and rely in a variety of virulence factors. In this document, we introduce parasitoid lifestyle in an evolutionary context in order to better understand the parasitoid complexity. As the parasitoid lifestyle drives the host/parasitoid interaction outcome, we discuss for all how the virulence factors such as venom, polydnaviruses and many others are used to ensure successful development of the parasitoid. In this study, we focused on the endoparasitoid Hyposoter didymator (Hym., Ichneumonidae) virulence factors. We thus identified venom proteins and the genes from the associated polydnavirus, HdIV using proteomics, genomics and transcriptomics approaches. Studies on the effect of the venom and the calyx fluid containing the polydnavirus HdIV, reveal that only the calyx fluid is necessary for Spodoptera frugiperda host physiological alteration and parasitism success. Futhermore, this work presents the discovery of a local immune-evasive property of the H. didymator egg exochorion. All these data permitted us to design an effective spatio-temporal model of the virulence factor complementarity used by H. didymator during the parasitism time course. Finally, studies on the H. didymator host range reveals the inefficiency of the different virulence factors in non-permissive hosts, opening insights on the host permissiveness molecular mechanisms.

Os inseticidas neonicotinóides são atualmente o principal grupo químico utilizado para o controle de insetos sugadores, constituindo-se uma boa opção para o controle de Diaphorina citri Kuwayama. Outra opção de controle do psilídeo tem sido a exploração do parasitóide Tamarixia radiata (Waterson). A compatibilidade dessas duas estratégias de controle poderia auxiliar na implementação de programas de manejo integrado de pragas na cultura do citros. No entanto, faltam estudos sobre a caracterização da suscetibilidade de D. citri para os inseticidas neonicotinóides e o impacto desses inseticidas sobre T. radiata. Sendo assim, os objetivos do trabalho foram o de caracterizar a suscetibilidade de D. citri a inseticidas neonicotinóides, realizar o monitoramento da suscetibilidade a esses inseticidas em populações de D. citri coletadas em pomares de diferentes regiões do Estado de São Paulo e avaliar os efeitos letais e subletais desses inseticidas sobre o parasitóide T. radiata. Os inseticidas avaliados foram: thiamethoxam, thiacloprid e imidacloprid. O método de bioensaio adotado foi o de contato residual para a caracterização da suscetibilidade de D.citri a esses inseticidas. O monitoramento da suscetibilidade a esses inseticidas em diferentes populações de D. citri foi realizado com concentrações diagnósticas baseadas na concentração letal 95 (CL95) de cada inseticida. Para avaliar os efeitos letais e subletais desses inseticidas sobre T. radiata foram realizados bioensaios de contato direto em adultos e pupas, toxicidade residual em adultos, e persistência da atividade biológica desses inseticidas sobre a superfície de folhas de citros. Entre os neonicotinóides testados, a maior toxicidade a D. citri foi observado com thiametoxam, seguidos por imidacloprid e thiaclopid. Os resultados do monitoramento apresentaram diferenças significativas na suscetibilidade das populações de D. citri aos inseticidas neonicotinóides. Para thiamethoxam, a sobrevivência estimada para as populações de D. citri testadas na concentração diagnóstica variou entre 5,5 e 16%, para thiacloprid variou entre 4,5 e 22,5 % e para imidacloprid entre 4 e 14%. Uma alta toxicidade desses inseticidas foi observada para adultos e pupas de T. radiata. No entanto, os efeitos subletais desses inseticidas a 10% da concentração recomendada sobre o estágio de pupa causou redução significativa no parasitismo somente com thiamethoxam. A emergência, longevidade e razão sexual de T. radiata não foram afetadas pelos inseticidas avaliados. A toxicidade residual de thiametoxam, thiacloprid e imidaclopid em folhas de mudas de citros foi relativamente elevada para adultos de T. radiata e com persistência de pelo menos 14 dias. / The neonicotinoids insecticides are currently the main chemical group used for controlling sucking pests and represent a good option for the control of Diaphorina citri Kuwayama. Another control alternative of this pest is the exploitation of parasitoid Tamarixia radiata (Waterson). The compatibility of these control strategies could be very helpful for the implementation of integrated pest management program in citrus. However, there are few studies on the characterization of the susceptibility of D. citri to neonicotinoid insecticides and the evaluation of the impact of these insecticides on T. radiata. Therefore, the objectives of this research were to evaluate the susceptibility of D. citri to neonicotinoid insecticides, to monitor the susceptibility to these insecticides in D. citri populations collected from different citrus groves in the State of São Paulo, and to evaluate the lethal and sublethal effects of these insecticides on T. radiata. The insecticides evaluated in this study were: thiamethoxam, thiacloprid e imidacloprid. A residual contact bioassay was used to characterize the susceptibility of D. citri to these insecticides. A diagnostic concentration bioassays based on lethal concentration 95 (LC95) of each insecticide were used for monitoring the susceptibility of D. citri populations. The lethal and sublethal effects of these insecticides on T. radiata were conducted by using direct contact bioassays on adult and pupal stages of T. radiata, residual contact bioassays and persistence of biological activity of these insecticides on citrus leaf surface. Among the neonicotinoid insecticides tested, the highest toxicity was observed with thiametoxam, followed by imidacloprid and thiaclopid. A significant difference in the susceptitibity to neonicotinoid insecticides was detected in D. citri populations. For thiamethoxam, the survivorship at diagnostic concentration varied from 5.5 to 16%, for thiacloprid varied from 4.5 to 22.5 %, and for imidacloprid from 4 to 14%. The toxicity of these insecticides was high to adult and pupal stages of T. radiata. However, the sublethal effects of these insecticides at 10% of the recommended rate on pupae stage caused the reduction of the parasitism capacity only with thiamethoxam. The emergence, longevity and sexual ratio of T. radiata were not affected by any insecticide tested. The residual toxicity of thiametoxam, thiacloprid and imidaclopid sprayed on citrus seedling leaves was relatively high to D. citri adults and lasted at least 14 days.

O parasitoide Ageniaspis citricola Logvinovskaya é o principal agente de controle biológico do minador-dos-citros Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton. No entanto, com a detecção do huanglongbing houve um aumento no uso de inseticidas nos pomares cítricos e não se conhece seus efeitos à A. citricola. Desta maneira, estudou-se o efeito letal de cinco inseticidas e a persistência aos 3, 7, 10, 17 e 24 dias após a pulverização em mudas de citros mantidas em casa de vegetação ao parasitoide A. citricola, nas dosagens especificadas (g i.a. L-1): imidacloprido 0,04 (Provado&reg; 200 SC), clorpirifós 0,72 (Lorsban&reg; 480 BR), bifentrina 0,02 (Talstar&reg; 100 EC), beta-ciflutrina 0,0125 (Turbo&reg; 50 EC), abamectina 0,0054 (Vertimec&reg;), bem como o efeito subletal no parasitismo em fêmeas expostas por 24 horas aos resíduos de abamectina. Imidacloprido, clorpirifós, bifentrina e beta-ciflutina foram considerados nocivos para adultos de A. citricola (M > 75%), enquanto que, abamectina foi considerado inócuo (M < 25%). Com base na duração do efeito nocivo, clorpirifós e beta-ciflutrina foram considerados de vida curta (< 5 dias), enquanto que, imidacloprido foi levemente persistente (5-15 dias) e bifentrina moderadamente persistente (16-30 dias). Abamectina não alterou a taxa de parasitismo de A. citricola, mas alterou substancialmente a razão sexual (0,11) quando comparado ao tratamento controle (0,5). Os resultados indicam que deve-se ter cautela em recomendar os produtos avaliados, observando-se o efeito residual daqueles produtos considerados nocivos à A. citricola, de forma a explorar a seletividade ecológica. Abamectina, embora inócua a adultos do parasitoide, pode levar a uma redução populacional de A. citricola, devendo-se realizar estudos de campo para elucidar essa questão. / Ageniaspis citricola Logvinovskaya is the main biological control agent of Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton. However, with the huanglongbing report, there was an increase in the use of insecticides in citrus orchards and the effects on A. citricola are not known. Thus, we studied the lethal effects of five insecticides and the persistence on 1, 3, 7, 10, 17 and 24 days post application in seedlings of citrus kept in greenhouse, using the specified dosages (g a.i. L-1): imidacloprid 0.04 (Provado&reg; 200 SC), chlorpyriphos 0.72 (Lorsban&reg; 48 BR), bifenthrin 0.02 (Talstar&reg; 10 EC), beta-cyfluthrin 0.0125 (Turbo&reg; 5 EC), abamectin 0.0054 (Vertimec&reg; 18 EC), as well as the sublethal effect on the parasitism by females exposed to residues of 24 hours of abamectin. Imidacloprid, chlorpyriphos, bifenthrin and beta-cyfluthrin were considered harmful to A. citricola (M > 75%) and abamectin were considered harmless (M < 25%). Chlorpyriphos and beta-cyfluthrin were considered of short life (< 5 days), imidacloprid slightly persistent (5-15 days) and bifenthrin moderately persistent (16-30 days). Abamectin did not affect the parasitism by A. citricola, but the sex ratio, with a sex ratio of 0.11 against 0.5 of the control. The results indicate that we must be careful to recommend the evaluated insecticides, observing the persistence of those classified as harmful to A. citricola, as a manner to explore the ecological selectivity. Even though considered harmless to adult parasitoids, abamectin can lead to population reduction of A. citricola, being necessary field studies to confirm that situation.

Parasitoides interferem no sistema imunológico de seus hospedeiros, influenciando a expressão de genes relacionados à resposta celular e humoral, podendo interferir na relação hospedeiro - microbiota intestinal. Além disso, parasitoides induzem alterações fisiológicas no hospedeiro que alteram o consumo e a utilização de alimento, e que podem influenciar a microbiata intestinal do mesmo. Alterações nessa microbiota poderiam afetar as relações e contribuições ao hospedeiro e, consequentemente, influenciar o desenvolvimento do próprio parasitoide. O objetivo deste trabalho foi o de verificar o efeito do parasitismo por Cotesia flavipes (Cameron) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) na estrutura e no potencial funcional de contribuição da microbiota intestinal de Diatraea saccharalis (F.) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), hospedeiro permissivo, e de Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), hospedeiro não-permissivo. Além disso, buscou-se verificar se as secreções utilizadas pelo parasitoide (veneno, fluidos do cálice e virus simbionte) na regulação hospedeira estariam associadas à manipulação da microbiota intestinal do hospedeiro. O efeito do parasitismo na microbiota intestinal associada às porções antero-mediana e posterior do intestino dos hospedeiros estudados foi avaliado na fase inicial (1 DAP - dia após o parasitismo), intermediária (5 DAP) e final (9 DAP) do desenvolvimento larval do parasitoide. A avaliação foi feita por meio da comparação da diversidade e abundância de bactérias associadas ao trato intestinal de D. saccharalis e S. frugiperda parasitadas ou não por C. flavipes. A caracterização das bactérias foi feita via análise metagenômica em plataforma Illumina MiSeq utilizando a região V4 do gene ribossomal 16S. O pacote de softwares QIIME foi utilizado para a atribuição taxonômica das mesmas e o potencial funcional foi inferido por meio do software PICRUSt. O parasitismo afetou a abundância e diversidade de unidades taxonômicas operacionais (UTOs) da microbiota intestinal da porção antero-mediana e posterior de ambos hospedeiros. As alterações observadas para as duas regiões intestinais investigadas não seguiram o mesmo padrão ao longo do desenvolvimento do parasitoide. As análises realizadas também demonstraram que as alterações da microbiota induzidas pelo parasitismo refletiram em alterações significativas no potencial funcional de contribuição da microbiota associada ao trato digestivo de D. saccharalis e S. frugiperda. As análises da microbiota de lagartas pseudo-parasitadas demonstraram que as secreções maternas injetadas pela fêmea do parasitoide no momento do parasitismo estão envolvidas, pelo menos parcialmente, com os processos que levam às modificações na diversidade e abundância da microbita intestinal hospedeira, assim como de seu potencial de contribuição funcional. Esses resultados indicam que outros fatores/alterações produzidos em condições normais de parasitismo, seja pela influência de secreções de teratócitos e das próprias larvas do parasitoide em desenvolvimento também estão envolvidos na manipulação da microbiota hospedeira. Várias das alterações observadas no potencial de contribuição da microbiota intestinal do hospedeiro podem refletir sua qualidade nutricional e, consequentemente, favorecer sua exploração pelo parasitoide. Assim, o processo de regulação hospedeira por parasitoides se estende ao conjunto de organismos associados que compõem o holobionte representado pela lagarta hospedeira. / Parasitoids interfere with the immune system of their hosts by influencing the expression of genes related to cellular and humoral responses, which may interfere with the host - gut microbiota relationship. Furthermore, parasitoids induce physiological changes in the host, modifying food consumption and utilization, influencing then the host gut microbiota. These changes can affect the relationship and contributions of the gut microbiota to the host and therefore influence parasitoid development. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of parasitism by Cotesia flavipes (Cameron) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in the structure and potential functional contribution of the gut microbiota of the permissive host Diatraea saccharalis (F.) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) and the non-permissive host Spodoptera frugiperda (JE Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) . In addition, the participation of the secretions female parasitoids (venon, calyx fluid and symbiotic virus) use in host regulation in the manipulation of the host gut microbiota was also investigated. The effects of host parasitization on the microbiota associated with the anterior (foregut-midgut) and posterior (hindgut) portions of host gut were evaluated at the early (1 DAP - day after parasitism), intermediate (5 DAP) and final (9 DAP) stages of parasitoid larval development. The diversity and abundance of the gut microbiota of D. saccharalis and S. frugiperda was compared in between parasitized and non-parasitized larvae by C. flavipes. The gut microbiota was characterized by sequencing the V4 region of the 16S ribosomal gene using the Illumina MiSeq platform. The software package QIIME was used for taxonomic attribution and the PICRUSt software was used to infer the potential funcional contribution of the gut microbiota. Host parasitization affected the abundance and diversity of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) of the two gut regions investigated (foregut-midgut and hindgut) in both hosts. The changes observed for both gut regions did not follow the same pattern throughout parasitoid development. Changes in the gut microbiota induced by parasitization reflected in significant changes in the potential of the functional contribution of the gut microbiota associated with D. saccharalis and S. frugiperda. Analyses of pseudo-parasitized larvae demonstrated that the maternal secretions female parasitoids inject when ovipositing are involved, at least partially, with the processes that lead to changes in the abundance, diversity and potential functional contribution of the host gut microbita. These results indicate that other factors / changes produced during normal parasitization, such as secretions from teratocytes and/or the developing parasitoid larvae can also be involved in the manipulation of host gut microbiota. Several of the changes observed in the potential contribution of the host gut microbiota may reflect its nutritional quality and therefore favor host exploitation by parasitoids. Thus, the process of host regulation by parasitoids also involves the regulation of the gut-associated bacteria, which altogether comprise the holobionte represented by the host larvae.

Parasitic insects are known for their distinct life strategy: they necessarily kill their hosts in order to complete their life cycle. Eighty percent of parasitoids species belongs to the order Hymenoptera (bees, ants and wasps). Among parasitoid wasps Ichneumonidae stands out with more than 25 thousand species and a great diversity of habits and hosts. Despite the large number of species already described, there is a low representativeness of species in tropical regions, mainly due to the lack of taxonomical studies in those areas. The objective of the present study was to compile the information on the biology of Ichneumonidae through an extensive literature review and to conduct a taxonomic study of the species of Charops Holmgren, 1859 (Campopleginae) occurring in Brazil. It was observed that out of the 950 species of Ichneumonidae registered in Brazil, less than 10% present some host records. These records are mainly concentrated in the south and southeast of the Brazil where the relatively largest number of taxonomists are concentrated. In addition, most of the records relate to hosts of economic importance in corn, soybean and cotton crops. Little is known about the parasitoid / host interaction in natural Brazilian biomes. Also, thirty-three species with dubious occurrence in Brazil were found. Notwithstanding Campopleginae being one of the subfamilies with the highest number of host records, taxonomical studies on it are still scarce in Brazil. An example is the genus Charops, which despite having recorded for Brazil at genus level, has never been studied through a taxonomic point of view. The study of 614 specimens of this genus revealed 9 new species from Brazil, being the first described for South America. Its geographical distribution record is expanded and illustrated in distribution maps. High resolution images and a key for these species are also provided. / Insetos parasitoides são conhecidos pela sua distinta estratégia de vida, na qual para concluir o seu ciclo de vida necessariamente matam os seus hospedeiros. Oitenta por cento das espécies de parasitoides pertencem à ordem Hymenoptera (abelhas, formigas e vespas). Dentre as vespas parasitoides destaca-se a família Ichneumonidae, que possui mais de 25 mil espécies nominais e apresenta grande diversidade de hábitos e hospedeiros. Apesar do grande número de espécies já descritas, existe uma baixa representatividade de espécies conhecidas de regiões tropicais devido, principalmente, à escassez de estudos taxonômicos na região. O presente estudo teve por objetivo compilar as informações sobre a biologia de Ichneumonidae a partir de uma extensa revisão da literatura e realizar um estudo taxonômico das espécies de Charops Holmgren, 1859 (Campopleginae) que ocorrem no Brasil. Foi observado que cerca das 950 espécies de Ichneumonidae que ocorrem no Brasil, menos de 10% possuem algum registro de hospedeiro. Tais registros estão concentrados principalmente nas regiões sul e sudeste do Brasil aonde se concentra a maior quantidade de taxonomistas do país. Além disso, grande parte dos registros referem-se a hospedeiros de importância econômica nas culturas de milho, soja e algodão. Pouco se sabe sobre a interação entre parasitoides/hospedeiros em biomas naturais brasileiros. Foram encontradas 33 espécies que apresentam registro de ocorrência dúbio para o Brasil. Apesar de ser uma das subfamílias com maior número de registros de hospedeiro, Campopleginae permanece relativamente carente de estudos taxonômicos no Brasil. Um exemplo disso é o gênero Charops que apesar de apresentar registros para o Brasil (em nível de gênero), nunca foi estudado através de um viés taxonômico. O estudo de 614 exemplares deste gênero revelou 9 espécies novas para o Brasil, sendo estas as primeiras espécies descritas para a América do Sul. Sua distribuição geográfica conhecida foi ampliada e ilustrada em mapas de distribuição. Imagens de alta resolução e uma chave de identificação para essas espécies são fornecidas.