Glacial floods and mass movements of ice, rock or debris are a significant hazard in many populated mountainous regions, often with devastating impacts upon human settlements and infrastructure. In response to atmospheric warming, glacial retreat and permafrost thaw are expected to alter high mountain geomorphic processes, and related instabilities. In the Aoraki/Mount Cook region of New Zealand's Southern Alps, a first investigation of geomorphic hazards associated with glacial change is undertaken and is based primarily on the use of remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for mapping, modelling, and analysing related processes and terrain. Following a comprehensive review of available techniques, remote sensing methods involving the use Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Radiometer (ASTER) imagery were applied to map glacial ice, lakes and debris accumulations in the Aoraki/Mount Cook region. Glacial lakes were mapped from two separate classification techniques using visible near infrared wavelengths, capturing highly turbid and clearer water bodies. Large volume (10⁶– 10⁸ m³) proglacial lakes have developed rapidly over recent decades, with an overall 20 % increase in lake area recorded between 2002 and 2006, increasing the potential for large mass movement impacts and flooding from displaced water. Where significant long-term glacial recession has occurred, steep moraines have been exposed, and large talus slopes occupy formerly glaciated slopes at higher elevations. At the regional-scale, these potential source areas for debris instabilities were distinguished from surrounding bedrock slopes based on image texture variance. For debris and ice covered slopes, potentially unstable situations were classified using critical slope thresholds established from international studies. GIS-based flow routing was used to explore possible intersections between zones of human use and mass movement or flood events, assuming worst-case, probable maximum runout distances. Where glacial lakes are dammed by steep moraine or outwash gravel, primarily in cirque basins east of the Main Divide, modelled debris flows initiated by potential flood events did not reach any infrastructure. Other potential peri- and para-glacial debris flows from steep moraines or talus slopes can reach main roads and buildings. The direct hazard from ice avalanches is restricted to backcountry huts and walking tracks, but impacts into large glacial lakes are possible, and could produce a far reaching hazard, with modelled clear water flood-waves capable of reaching village infrastructure and main roads both east and west of the Main Divide. A numerical modelling approach for simulating large bedrock failures has been introduced, and offers potential with which to examine possible lake impacts and related scenarios. Over 500 bedrock slope failures were analysed within a GIS inventory, revealing distinct patterns in geological and topographic distribution. Rock avalanches have occurred most frequently from greywacke slopes about and east of the Main Divide, particularly from slopes steeper than 50°, and appear the only large-magnitude failure mechanism above 2500 m. In the schist terrain west of the Main Divide, and at lower elevations, other failure types predominate. The prehistoric distribution of all failure types suggests a preference for slopes facing west to northwest, and is likely to be strongly influenced by earthquake generated failures. Over the past 100 years, seismicity has not been a factor, and the most failures have been as rock avalanches from slopes facing east to southeast, particularly evident from the glaciated, and potentially permafrost affected hangingwall of the Main Divide Fault Zone. An initial estimate of permafrost distribution based on topo-climatic relationships and calibrated locally using mean annual air temperature suggested permafrost may extend down to elevations of 3000 m on sunny slopes, and as low as 2200 m on shaded slopes near the Main Divide. A network of 15 near-surface rock temperature sensors was installed on steep rock walls, revealing marginal permafrost conditions (approaching 0 °C) extending over a much larger elevation range, occurring even where air temperature is likely to remain positive, owing to extreme topographic shading. From 19 rock failures observed over the past 100 years, 13 detachment zones were located on slopes characterized by marginal permafrost conditions, including a sequence of 4 failures that occurred during summer 2007/08, in which modelled bedrock temperatures near the base of the detachments were in the range of 1.4 to +2.5 °C. Ongoing monitoring of glacial and permafrost conditions in the Aoraki/Mount Cook region is encouraged, with more than 45 km2 of extremely steep slopes (>50°) currently ice covered or above modelled permafrost elevation limits. Approaches towards modelling and analysing glacial hazards in this region are considered to be most applicable within other remote mountain regions, where seismicity and steep topography combine with possible destabilizing influences of glacial recession and permafrost degradation.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Universität Zürich, 2007. / Added thesis t.p. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 155-167).

Plusieurs études récentes ont montré que le réchauffement climatique des régions nordiques, deux fois plus important dans les hautes latitudes nord qu’ailleurs dans le monde, augmentait l’épaisseur de la couche active de surface en zones de pergélisol (couche superficielle du sol qui dégèle durant la période estivale). Cette modification de surface pourrait avoir un impact environnemental très important sur la libération du carbone du sol, l’hydrologie, les écosystèmes, ainsi que sur le pergélisol. Cette évolution commence déjà à avoir des répercutions socio-économiques importantes sur les infrastructures des communautés du Nord. Le but du projet est d’exploiter une nouvelle base de données satellites micro-onde, que nous venons de développer, pour l’analyse des températures de surface et de l’évolution du pergélisol (permafrost) au Canada-Alaska sur les 30 dernières années. Un des objectifs spécifiques du projet est de mettre au point une méthode de caractérisation des changements de la couche active de surface en zones de pergélisol par l’assimilation des observations spatiales dans un modèle de flux de chaleur dans le sol. L’évolution de l’étendue des zones de pergélisol dérivée sera analysée en fonction de la couverture du sol et de la dynamique du couvert nival, deux paramètres aussi dérivés par satellite. Possibilité de validation des modèles par mesures au sol avec nos radiomètres micro-ondes. Ce projet combine ainsi développement théorique, modélisation et traitement d’images numériques sur différents domaines scientifiques (physique de la mesure en télédétection, géophysique de l’environnement, écosystèmes, science des sols). / Recent studies showed that global warming in arctic areas, as twice as important in northern high latitudes than in the rest of the world, growed the thickness of the surface active layer in permafrost areas (superficial layer of the soil that thaws during summer period). This surface modification could have a major environmental impact on soil carbon release, hydrology, ecosystems, and permafrost. It already starts to have socio-economical impacts on north community infrastructures. The project's goal is to use a new microwave satellite database that has just been developed for the analysis of surface temperatures and changes in permafrost in Canada, Alaska over the past 30 years. One of the specific goals of the project is to develop a method to characterize changes in the surface active layer in permafrost areas by the assimilation of space observations in a heat flow model in the soil. The evolution of the extension of permafrost areas derived will be analyzed according to the coverage of soil and the dynamics of snow cover, two parameters also derived by satellite. Possibility of model validation by ground measurements with a microwaves radiometers. This project combines theoretical development, modeling and image processing on different scientific fields (physics of remote sensing measurement, Geophysics of the Environment, ecosystems, soil science).

Les tourbières sont largement présentes dans les hautes latitudes nord et plus particulièrement dans les régions de pergélisols. Elles contiennent un important stock de carbone et constituent l’une des plus grandes sources naturelles de méthane. Leur représentation dans un modèle de climat estalors primordiale pour améliorer celle du cycle du carbone. De plus, la contribution des émissions de méthane des tourbières reste encore incertaine et de nombreuses incertitudes persistent. Les émissions de méthane des tourbières dépendent fortement du climat et sont influencées principalement par la température et l’humidité du sol. Parallèlement, le réchauffement climatique particulièrement prononcé à ces latitudes conduit au dégel des pergélisols avec une augmentation de la profondeur de la couche active. Ce grand réservoir de carbone peut être partiellement mobilisé et émis sous forme de CO2 ou CH4, en fonction des conditions hydrologiques à la surface.L’objectif de ces travaux de thèse consiste à représenter les tourbières des hautes latitudes dansle modèle de surface ORCHIDEE. Ce développement est effectué dans la version du modèle qui intègreles processus des hautes latitudes tels que le gel des sols. Les tourbières sont représentées parun schéma hydrologique spécifique ce qui améliore les échanges en énergie et en eau. La difficultérepose sur la représentation des processus locaux des tourbières à l’échelle d’un modèle de climatglobal. Certaines propriétés biologiques ont également été prises en compte afin de mieux représenter la végétation de ces milieux. Pour cela, les tourbières sont intégrées comme un nouveau type devégétation et représentées par une fraction de grille, basée sur des observations. Le comportement hydrologique et l’impact de cette intégration sont évalués à échelle des hautes latitudes ainsi qu’à échelle régionale. Ce développement permet d’estimer ensuite l’évolution de l’hydrologie des tourbières suite au réchauffement climatique. Les changements de l’hydrologie des tourbières d’ici la fin du siècle permettent de mieux évaluer les variations futures de leurs émissions de CH4.Ce travail de développement a ensuite été appliqué pour déterminer l’évolution des émissions deméthane. Les tourbières constituent l’une des plus grandes sources naturelles de méthane et contrôlentà plus de 70 % la variabilité interannuelle de la concentration atmosphérique de CH4. Les émissionsde méthane résultent de différents processus physiques et biologiques tels que la méthanogénèse etla méthanotrophie. Pour représenter ces processus, un modèle de densité de flux existant, intégré dans ORCHIDEE, a été adapté pour les tourbières afin d’estimer les émissions de méthane des tourbières des hautes latitudes. L’évolution de ces émissions est étudiée entre le début du 20ème et la fin du 21ème siècles selon différents scénarios climatiques. / Peatlands are widely present in northern latitudes and especiallyin permafrost regions. They contain a high carbon stock and are one ofthe greatest natural sources of methane. Their representation in a climate model is crucial to improve the one of the carbon cycle. Moreover, the contribution of methanepeatland emissions remains uncertain.Methane emissions from peatlands strongly depend on the climate and are influenced primarily by temperature and soil moisture. Meanwhile, climate change is particularlysevere at these latitudes and leads to thawing permafrost with increasing the active layer depth. This large carbon reservoir may be partially mobilized and emitted asCO2 or CH4, depending on hydrological conditions at the surface.The aim of this PhD thesis is to represent northern peatlands in the ORCHIDEE land surface model. This development is carried out in the version of the model that incorporatesprocesses in high latitudes such as the soil freezing. Peatlands are represented by a specific hydrological scheme which improves the exchange of energy and water. The difficulty isbased on the representation of local peatlands processes across a global climate model. Some biological properties were also considered to represent bettervegetation of these environments. To do so, peatlands are integrated as a new type ofvegetation and represented by a fraction of a grid, based on observations. Thehydrological behaviour and the impact of this integration are estimated at the boreal scale as well asregionally. This development then allows estimate changes in the hydrology of peatlands due to global warming. Studying the changes in hydrology of peatlands by the end of th 21st century will improve the prediction of future changes in their CH4 emissions.This development work was then applied to determine the evolution of methane emissions. Peatlands are one of the largest natural sources of methane and control more than 70% interannual variability of atmospheric concentration of CH4. Methane emissions result from various physical and biological processes such as methanogenesis and the methanotrophy. To represent these processes, a flux density model, integratedin ORCHIDEE, was adapted for peatlands to estimate their methane emissions. The evolution of these emissions is studied between the early 20th and late 21st centuries under different climate scenarios.

Cette étude visait à développer un modèle dynamique du pergélisol-carbone à intégrer dans le modèle CLIMBER-2 et d'effectuer des simulations en vue de contribuer à la connaissance du cycle du carbone. Ce travail pourrait, pour la première fois, permettre une étude de modélisation avec un modèle de système terrestre qui comprendrait l'atmosphère dynamique, l'océan dynamique, la végétation dynamique et les composantes de la cryosphere, y compris les terres gelées, afin d'étudier le paléoclimat. La disponibilité des données récentes du CO2 et de δ13C de CO2 dans l'atmosphère fourni un moyen de valider les résultats du modèle pour déterminer si une dynamique pergélisol-carbone pourrait avoir joué un rôle important au cours des climats changeants.Un mécanisme pergélisol-carbone simplifié a été développé et validé et à été réglé en utilisant les données de la terminaison 1 (T1). Il a été constaté que, pour reproduire des données de CO2 et δ13C atmosphériques (pour l'atmosphère et l'océan) au cours de T1, une combinaison des mécanismes océaniques-glaciaires et pergélisol-carbone ont été nécessaires. Suite à cette constatation, plusieurs cycles glaciaires ont été modélisés pour étudier la sensibilité du mécanisme pergélisol-carbone aux forçages de CO2, les calottes glaciaires et l'insolation. l'étendue des calottes glaciaires a été jugée particulièrement importante pour le contrôle de la superficie des terres disponibles pour le pergélisol, et donc aussi pour la dynamique du carbone du pergélisol-carbone. La libération du carbone dans les sols de dégel en réponse à l'augmentation de l'insolation d'été dans les hautes latitudes, a été jugée très probable comme la source des hausses initiales de CO2 dans l'atmosphère au cours des terminaisons glaciaires.Les données CO2 de terminaison 1 peuvent être bien reproduits, y compris le plateau de CO2 BA / YD, quand le forçage de l'eau douce est appliqué à l'Atlantique nord. Expériences avec forçage de l'eau douce ont souligné l'importance du mécanisme du pergélisol-carbone dans l'évolution rapide des climats. Les augmentations très rapides des niveaux de CO2 dans l'atmosphère peuvent être expliqués par la libération rapide des sols en carbone en réponse à l'augmentation du transport de chaleur vers l'hémisphère nord. C'est en réponse à la reprise de l'AMOC suite d'un événement AMOC arrêt/réduction, tels que des événements D/O vu dans les données du δ18O Groenland. Les projections de changement climatique représentent des événements de réchauffement rapide. La conduite du modèle par des projections d'émissions (base de données RCP) a prédit l'augmentation du CO2 de pic et une plus longue période a des niveaux élevées de CO2 par rapport aux sorties du modèle qui ne comprennent pas les évaluations du pergélisol-carbone.L'analyse de δ13C de l'océan doit tenir compte de la dynamique du pergélisol et du carbone de la terre en général et de son effet sur les niveaux de δ13C atmosphériques. Si ce n'est pas pris en compte alors la circulation océanique peut être trop invoquée pour tenter d'expliquer les changements de δ13C de l'océan et du CO2 atmosphérique.Le mécanisme pergélisol-carbone réagit aux changements de température et amplifie la réponse du cycle du carbone. Il est fortement dépendant non seulement de l'apport d'énergie (qui détermine la température du sol et de l'emplacement du pergélisol), mais également de la surface de terres disponible à l'échelle mondiale sur laquelle le pergélisol peut exister. Afin de modéliser et de comprendre correctement la réponse du système terrestre dans les climats futurs et passés, le mécanisme de rétroaction pergélisol-carbone est un élément important du système. Ce travail a été une première étape pour aborder le rôle que la cryosphere terrestre joue dans le cycle du carbone et du système climatique sur de longues échelles de temps, et que d'autres études sont essentielles. / This study aimed to develop a permafrost-carbon dynamic model to incorporate into the CLIMBER-2 Earth system model and to carry out simulations with a view to contributing to the knowledge of the carbon cycle. The work would, for the first time, allow a fully coupled modelling study with an earth system model which included dynamic atmosphere, ocean, vegetation and cryosphere components including frozen land to study paleoclimates. The availability of recent ice core data for CO2 and δ13C of atmospheric CO2 was to provide a means of validating model findings to identify whether a permafrost-carbon dynamic could have played a significant role in past changing climates.The deep Southern Ocean is an area of particular interest for glacial-interglacial CO2 variability, and current modelling efforts aim to recreate the observed CO2 changes using ocean mechanisms. These are often related to deep southern ocean carbon storage and release. So far the terrestrial biosphere has not been well-considered in transient simulations of the carbon cycle in Earth system models.A simplified permafrost-carbon mechanism was developed and validated and tuned using data from termination 1. It was found that in order to reproduce atmospheric CO2 and δ13C data (for atmosphere and ocean) during the termination, a combination of glacial ocean mechanisms and the permafrost-carbon mechanism was required. Following this finding, several glacial cycles were modelled to study the sensitivity of the permafrost-carbon mechanisms to CO2, ice sheets and insolation. Ice sheet extent was found to be particularly important in controlling the land area available for permafrost and therefore the carbon dynamics of permafrost-carbon. The permafrost-carbon mechanism, via carbon release from thawing soils responding to increasing summer insolation in higher northern latitudes, was found to very likely be the source of initial rises in CO2 on glacial terminations.Termination 1 CO2 data could be well reproduced, including the B-A/YD CO2 plateau, when fresh water forcing was applied to the north Atlantic. Fresh water forcing experiments pointed to the importance of the permafrost-carbon mechanism in fast changing climates. Very fast increases in atmospheric CO2 levels may be explained by fast soil-carbon release responding to increased heat transport to the northern hemisphere on AMOC resumption following an AMOC switch-off/reduction event, such as D/O events seen in the Greenland δ18O record. Future climate change projections represent fast warming events. Driving the model by emissions projections (RCP database) predicted increased peak CO2 and much longer term elevated CO2 levels relative to model outputs which did not include the permafrost carbon feedback.Analysis of ocean δ13C must take into account the dynamics of permafrost and land carbon in general and its effect on atmospheric δ13C levels. If this is not taken into account then ocean circulation may be over-invoked in attempting to explain changes in ocean δ13C and atmospheric CO2. The Earth system is not simply atmosphere and ocean. The findings in this work highlight that it is essential to consider land carbon dynamics when interpreting paleo-indicators for the carbon cycle.The permafrost-carbon mechanism reacts to temperature changes and amplifies the carbon cycle's response. It is stongly dependent not only on energy input (that determines soil temperature and permafrost location), but also on the area of land available globally on which it can exist. In order to properly model and understand the Earth system response to forcing in both future and past climates, the permafrost-carbon feedback mechanism is an important system component. This work has been a first step to address the role that the land cryosphere plays in the carbon cycle and climate system on long timescales, and further studies are essential.

Le pergélisol est une composante majeure du système climatique terrestre. Avec le réchauffement du climat, la dégel du pergélisol profite à l'activité biochimique qui décompose davantage de matière organique dans les sols arctiques et la rejette dans l'atmosphère sous forme de gaz à effet de serre (CO2, CH4). Ce phénomène pourrait constituer une rétroaction climatique positive majeure. Prédire ces effets nécessite d'étudier l'évolution du régime thermique du pergélisol ainsi que des facteurs qui l'influencent. Le manteau neigeux, de par son pouvoir isolant, contrôle les échanges de chaleur entre le sol et l'atmosphère une grande partie de l'année. Le flux de chaleur à travers la neige dépend de la hauteur du manteau neigeux et de la conductivité thermique des couches de neige qui le constituent. Ces deux variables sont elles-même très dépendantes des conditions climatiques et de la présence de végétation. Nous réalisons ici le suivi des propriétés de la neige et du sol d'un site haut arctique de toundra herbacée (Île Bylot, 73N), et d'un site bas arctique à la frontière de la toundra arbustive et forestière (Umiujaq, 56N). Nous utilisons les données issues de stations de mesure automatiques complétées par des mesures manuelles. Une attention particulière est portée sur la conductivité thermique de la neige, car peu de données sont disponibles pour les régions arctiques. Le modèle numérique couplé ISBA-Crocus est ensuite utilisé pour simuler les propriétés de la neige et du sol des deux sites étudiés. Les résultats sont comparés aux mesures de terrain afin d'évaluer la capacité du modèle à simuler le régime thermique des sols arctiques.Nous avons pu caractériser les interactions atmosphère-neige-végétation qui façonnent la structure des manteaux neigeux arctiques. Le vent et la redistribution de neige qu'il induit sont des paramètres fondamentaux qui déterminent la hauteur et la conductivité thermique de la neige. Un couvert végétal haut et dense (arbustes, arbres) piège la neige soufflée et l'abrite du tassement éolien. De plus, la structure ligneuse des massifs arbustifs soutient la masse de neige et empêche son tassement. Cet abri procure à la neige une capacité d'isolation élevée qui retarde le gel du sol dès les premières accumulations. Le refroidissement atmosphérique se poursuivant, le manteau neigeux peu épais est soumis à un gradient thermique élevé qui provoque d'importants transferts de vapeur d'eau depuis le sol et les couches de neige basales, vers les couches supérieures et l'atmosphère. La croissance de givre de profondeur qui s'opère, favorisée à la fois par le gradient thermique élevé et la faible densité de la neige, aboutit à la formation de couches très isolantes en contact avec la surface du sol. Tant que le sol demeure relativement chaud, la croissance de givre de profondeur perdure. Finalement, des épisodes de fonte peuvent avoir lieu en automne durant la mise en place du manteau neigeux dans les régions arctiques. Le regel de la neige peut rapidement annuler ou même temporairement inverser l'effet isolant des interactions neige-végétation. Une surface de neige gelée ne subit pas l'effet du vent et empêche sa redistribution. La formation de croûtes de regel à forte conductivité thermique accélère le refroidissement du sol. Le manteau neigeux affecté par la fonte au début de l'hiver a donc une capacité d'isolation diminuée qui pourrait entraver le réchauffement des sols arctiques. Nos résultats de simulation montrent que ces différents effets ne sont pas correctement représentés dans les modèles de neige. Les erreurs dans les conductivités thermiques de la neige simulées sont particulièrement problématiques puisqu'elles interviennent lors de la période de gel du sol. Étant donné l'étendue des régions affectées par le pergélisol, ces erreurs sur la modélisation de la neige arctique pourraient significativement affecter les simulations climatiques et les projections de la hausse des températures globales. / Permafrost is a major component of the Earth climatic system. Global warming provokes the degradation of permafrost which favors biogeochemical activity in Arctic soils. The decomposition of organic matter increases and results in the release of high amounts of greenhouse gases (CO2 and CH4) to the atmosphere. By amplifying the greenhouse effect induced by human activities, this phenomenon may constitute one of the strongest positive feedbacks on global warming. Predicting these effects requires to study the evolution of the permafrost thermal regime and the factors governing it. The snowpack, because of its insulating effect, modulates the heat fluxes between permafrost and atmosphere most of the year. The snow insulating capacity depends on snow height and thermal conductivity. These two variables are highly dependent on climatic conditions and on the presence of vegetation. Here we monitor the snow and soil physical properties at a high Arctic site typical of herbaceous tundra (Bylot Island, 73°N), and at a low Arctic site situated at the limit between shrub and forest tundra (Umiujaq, 56°N). We use data from automatic measurement stations and manual measurements. A special attention is given to the snow thermal conductivity because very few data are available for Arctic regions. Results are interpreted in relation to vegetation type and atmospheric conditions. The numerical coupled model ISBA-Crocus is then used to simulate snow and soil properties at our sites. Results are compared to field data in order to evaluate the model capacity to accurately simulate the permafrost thermal regime.We managed to describe atmosphere-snow-vegetation interactions that shape the structure of Arctic snowpacks. Wind and the snow redistribution it induces are fundamental parameters governing snow height and thermal conductivity. A high vegetation cover (i.e. shrubs and forest) traps blowing snow and shields it from wind compaction. Vegetation growth thus favors the formation of an insulating snowpack which slows down or even prevents soil freezing. Furthermore, the shrubs woody structure supports the snow mass and prevents the resulting compaction of bottom snow layers. Thus sheltered, snow in shrubs develops a high insulating capacity which delays soil freezing. Continued atmospheric cooling increases the thermal gradient in the snow, maintaining large water vapor transfers from the soil and the snow basal layers to upper layers and atmosphere. The growth of depth hoar, enhanced by the large thermal gradient and the low snow density, results in the formation of highly insulating snow layers thus constituting a positive feedback loop between soil temperature and snow insulation. As long as the soil stays relatively warm, depth hoar growth persists. Finally, if warm spells occur in autumn, they can trigger the partial melting of the early snowpack which can cancel or temporarily reverse the insulating effect of snow-vegetation interactions. A frozen snow surface prevents snow drifting and its redistribution. The presence of highly conductive refrozen layers facilitates soil cooling and reduces the thermal gradient. An early snowpack affected by melting is thus less insulative which could hamper Arctic soil warming. Simulation results show that these different effects are not correctly represented in snow models. Errors in the estimated snow thermal conductivities are particularly problematic as they highly affect the simulation of soil freezing. Given the area of permafrost-affected regions, these errors on Arctic snow modelling could significantly impact climate simulations and the global warming projections.

Climate-induced landscape evolution is resulting in changes to biogeochemical and hydrologi- cal cycling. In the Arctic and sub-Arctic permafrost zones, rising air temperatures are warming, and in some regions even thawing, the frozen ground. Permafrost is a carbon sink. The thermal state of the ground therefore has important implications on carbon exchange with the atmo- sphere. Permafrost thaw mobilises previously sequestered carbon stocks, potentially turning these high latitude regions into a net carbon source. Borehole temperature and active layer depth measurements are the traditional means for monitoring permafrost, however these point measurements cannot easily be extrapolated to the landscape-scale; Earth Observation (EO) data may be used for such purposes. It is widely recognised that changes in the thermal state of permafrost may be associated with longterm changes in surface hydrology. As the ground shifts from a frozen to a thawed state, Arctic lakes display changes in surface extent. Therefore, it has become common practice to explore lake dynamics, using these as indicators of permafrost change; dynamics being the keyword. Surface hydrology is a dynamic process. Discharge studies in the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions are associated with flashy hydrographs. Currently, however, remote sensing of permafrost lake change is done on the scale of decades without explicitly taking seasonality and rapid hydrolog- ical phenology into consideration. To examine the seasonal changes in Arctic surface hydrology on the landscape scale high temporal resolution data are necessary. Synthetic aperture radar instruments are exemplary for such a task. The PhD research focuses on establishing operational techniques for mapping open surface water using synthetic aperture radar data, investigating straightforward raster classification methods and exploring their feasibility by undertaking map accuracy and sensitivity studies (chapter 3). The results are then used to justify error propagation when developing an auto- mated procedure that creates temporal composites of water body extent. These temporal water body classifications are the main EO product used to identify and image seasonal surface water change in Arctic permafrost environments (chapter 4). Furthermore, a terrain-based hydrolog- ical study is undertaken to explore the context of the detected changes and possible links to relief and stream channel network (chapter 5). The aim of this PhD is to demonstrate a new method of dynamic monitoring using the Euro- pean Space Agency’s Envisat Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar, recommending its incorpo- ration in longterm lake change studies. Technical feasibility is explored, the inherent trade-off vii between spatial and temporal resolution discussed. An automated surface water change de- tection algorithm is developed and its applicability to monitoring spring floods is assessed; noting possible modifications to the drainage system given present-day land-use and land- cover changes that are taking place in the study area, the hydrocarbon-rich Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous District in the North of West Siberia (chapter 6). The key significance of this research is to improve the current knowledge of Arctic lake change by including spring flood events and seasonality in the equation. Therefore, it is strongly believed that this research is of benefit to the entire permafrost community.

This thesis analyses ice-rich mountain permafrost with regard to its genesis, distribution, deformation and interaction with other environmental factors. The processes influencing ground ice formation in ice-rich and ice-poor mountain permafrost are highlighted. Factors influencing the presence of ice-rich permafrost are identified and their individual or combined effect on frozen ground is determined. Based on these findings, a new permafrost distribution map of Switzerland was created, which specifies permafrost temperature and ice contents and considers rock glacier creep paths. The deformation of rock glaciers is investigated with newly developed monitoring systems and concepts. This enables a better understanding of the processes leading to rock glacier acceleration at different time scales.

The predicted increase in atmospheric temperatures is expected to affect the turnover of soil organic carbon in permafrost soils through modifications of the soil thermal regime. However, the tundra biome is formed of a mosaic of diverse landscape types with differing patterns of soil organic carbon storage and partitioning. Among these, differences in e.g. vegetation diversity and soil movements due to freeze-thaw processes are of main importance for assessing potential C remobilization under a changing climate. In this study, we described the storage of soil organic carbon (SOC) and the aboveground phytomass carbon in relation to geomorphology and periglacial features for two areas on Taymir Peninsula (Arctic Russia). An average of 29.5 kg C m-2, calculated by upscaling with a land cover classification, is stored in the upper soil meter at these two study sites. The mean C phytomass storage amounts to ca.0.406 Kg C m-2, or only 1.38% of the total SOC storage. The topography, at different scales, plays an important role in the carbon partitioning. High amounts of soil organic carbon are found in highland areas and within the patterned ground features found in peatlands. The highest amounts of aboveground phytomass carbon are found in deciduous shrubs and moss layers. The large variability in carbon distribution within land cover types among the sites reveals the challenge of upscaling the carbon storage values over the Arctic and thus highlight the necessity to carry out detailed field inventories in this region.

This study aims to quantify ground ice content and describe the cryostructures and sediment in 15 ice-bearing permafrost cores collected from nine sand-wedge polygons in University Valley. The objectives were reached through laboratory measurements and computed tomodensitometric (CT) scanned image analysis of the permafrost cores. The soils in the valley were predominantly medium-sand. Four types of cryostructures were present in the cores: structureless, suspended, crustal and porphyritic. Excess ice content ranged from 0 to 93%, gravimetric water content ranged from 13 to 1881% and volumetric ice content varied from 28 to 93%. Median excess ice, volumetric ice and gravimetric water contents significantly increased in the top 20 cm of the cores taken from the polygon shoulders with increasing distance from University Glacier. Ground ice was preferentially stored in the centre of the investigated polygons where the ground surface remains cryotic throughout the year. Conversely, higher ground ice contents were measured in the shoulders of the investigated polygon where the ground surface is seasonally non-cryotic. CT-scanned images were shown to reasonably assess the distribution and presence of excess ice in permafrost cores taken from a cold and hyper-arid environment. The results of this thesis provide the first cryostratigraphic study in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica.