Photoperiod manipulations are widely used throughout the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) farming industry as a means of producing a product of uniform quality all-year round. However, farmers still remain sceptical over their effectiveness to regulate growth and maturation during the on-growing stage. Furthermore, reports of a characteristic growth-dip following light exposure suggest that light may negatively affect the physiological performance of fish in the short-term. Thus, this thesis investigates the effects of light characteristics (spectral quality, intensity and photoperiod) on growth and maturation of salmonid fish and addresses some of the uncertainties surrounding photoperiod use currently reported within the industry. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) are seemingly an ideal model species for examining photoperiod effects on growth. Consequently, the application of constant light exposure (LL) at two different intensities (28W and 16W) during two different thermal conditions (summer and winter) was examined on individually tagged fish. Feed intake and growth appeared to be related to the ambient water temperature and did not appear to be affected by intensity or photoperiod, although the onset of constant light did appear to initially affect growth rate. This may indicate that LL has a limiting effect on the growth of trout or that the prevailing water temperature at which light is applied may override the photoperiodic effect. Furthermore, the lack of enhanced growth in trout exposed to LL, unlike that demonstrated for other salmonids, suggest that there may be a species-specific response to environmental variables. Thus, questions regarding photoperiod effects should be limited to the species in question. The main source of variation in results observed under photoperiod manipulations stems from the salmon industry. Atlantic salmon post-smolts were reared in seawater tanks and either maintained under a natural photoperiod (NP) or exposed to a simulated natural photoperiod (SNP), constant light superimposed on the natural light (NPLL) or constant light only (LL). Artificial light onset, irrespective of photoperiod, resulted in an apparent trend for a reduced appetite lasting up to 60 days. Furthermore, the onset of constant light resulted in a significant chronic elevation of plasma cortisol levels and changes to growth and thyroid hormone levels, providing direct evidence that constant light exposure induces stress. In addition, fish exposed to SNP failed to exhibit a stress response despite a low feed intake. However, differences in the plasma melatonin levels during twilight times, as compared to NP, suggest that gradual changes in the natural light intensity throughout the day, particularly around dawn and dusk, may be important for synchronizing daily events. No differences in growth were observed between the NP and NPLL regimes, although fish reared in an enclosed regime (SNP and LL) exhibited a significantly lower weight gain than fish in an open environment (NP and NPLL). This further highlights the impact that the rearing environment has on the growth performances of fish and the need for commercially run trials. Advances in lighting technologies and a greater understanding of how light is transformed through the water column have focussed research on the spectral sensitivity of fish. Therefore the lighting efficiency of novel blue narrow bandwidth LED lighting units through the water column and their effects on growth and maturation performances of salmon reared in commercial production cages were compared against the standard metal halide units currently utilized throughout the industry. LL application, irrespective of intensity or spectrum, reduced the numbers of fish maturing as compared to fish reared under a natural photoperiod. However, this was greatest under the standard metal halide units reflecting a greater light penetration and perception as determined by plasma melatonin levels. The metal halide groups exhibited the greatest relative weight gain over the trial period as compared to control fish. No evidence was observed for a growth-dip under metal halide light, although blue lit treatments exhibited an initial significant reduction in food consumption, suggesting a possible welfare issue. Nevertheless, the prototype blue LED units showed possible potential for commercial application by penetrating the water depth at half the distance of the metal halide units for only one eighth the power and one fifth the brightness. However, further tests of these prototype spectral units are required to examine the potential welfare and physiological growth and reproductive effects. These studies have shown that the efficacy of artificial light regimes is largely dependent upon the effectiveness of the light source through the underwater environment and its perception by fish, providing a sufficient intensity is emitted exceeding the physiological threshold level for the species cultured. Moreover, whilst the onset of artificial light may elicit a stress response and demonstrate a trend for a suppression of appetite for salmon reared in experimental tanks, no compelling evidence for a suppression of appetite or growth was found under normal commercial cage conditions. This suggests that the growth-dip observed within the industry may in part be a combination of a physiological response to the onset of light further exaggerated by the farmer’s perception and altered judgement in feeding. In addition, the results obtained from this study have helped to standardize the use of light regimes within the industry. Nevertheless, further studies are necessary to fully elucidate the underlying mechanisms which may govern growth and maturation in fish following the onset of light exposure.

Com os objetivos de (i) elaborar uma adaptação do método da zona agroecológica, proposto por De Wit, para estimar a produtividade potencial e deplecionada da cultura de milho, utilizando procedimento estocástico, no Rio Grande do Sul; e de (ii) testar procedimentos estocásticos (distribuição normal truncada, triangular assimétrica e triangular simétrica) para simular dados de temperatura e de insolação para estimar produtividade potencial e deplecionada da cultura de milho, foi desenvolvida uma metodologia computacional. A quantidade de energia solar disponível às plantas (em função da latitude, declinação solar e nebulosidade), bem como a capacidade de sua conversão em fotossintetizado, contabilizado em termos de carboidrato, possibilita prever produtividade potencial de grãos de milho. Sem limitação de água no solo, o CO2 assimilado é convertido em massa de carboidrato em função do índice de área foliar (IAF), temperatura, radiação solar absorvida. fotoperíodo e duração do ciclo. Considerando os fatores de correção quanto à respiração e ao IAF, pode-se transformar a massa de carboidrato total final em massa de matéria seca referente a cada órgão (folha, raiz, colmo e órgão reprodutivo), considerando-se as partições de fotoassimilados e a composição da matéria seca. A produtividade potencial (PP) foi calculada com base na fitomassa seca total, no índice de colheita e no teor de água nos grãos. O balanço hídrico cíclico (Thornthwaite & Mather, 1955) foi utilizado para estimar o armazenamento de água no solo no decêndio que antecede a semeadura de milho. O balanço hídrico seqüencial, com variação do coeficiente de cultivo (Kc), foi utilizado para estimar a evapotranspiração da cultura (ETc) e a real (ETr). A produtividade deplecionada foi estimada a partir dos valores de PP, ETr, ETc e do coeficiente de resposta da cultura (Ky). Os dados climáticos de 16 municípios no Rio Grande do Sul, a capacidade de água dispoível (50 mm) e procedimentos estocásticos (distribuição normal truncada, triangular assimétrica e triangular simétrica para simular dados de temperatura e de insolação), foram usados para estimar PP e deplecionada para cada localidade, em diferentes épocas de semeadura. Com base nos resultados obtidos, conclui-se que: (i) a adaptação do método da zona agroecológica possibilita definir a ordem de grandeza das PP e deplecionada da cultura de milho, e produziu resultados coerentes com valores citados na literatura, identificando a melhor época de semeadura, e (ii) o procedimento estocástico pode ser utilizado nos seguintes casos: quando se dispõe de uma série histórica de temperatura, utiliza-se a distribuição normal truncada; quando não se dispõe de uma série histórica utiliza-se a distribuição triangular assimétrica, preferencialmente, ou a distribuição triangular simétrica. / With de purpose of (i) adapting of the agroecological zone method, proposed by De Wit, to estimate potential and depleted corn crop productivity, using stochastic procedure, in the Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil; and (ii) testing stochastic procedures (normal, and symmetric and non-symmetric distributions) to simulate air temperature and insolation data to estimate potential and depleted corn crop productivity, was developed a computational methodology. The amount of available solar energy to the plants (as function of the latitude, solar declination and cloudiness), as well as the capacity of energy conversion in photosyntates, computed in terms of carbohydrate, makes it possible to forecast corn productivity. Without soil water shortage the assimilated CO2 can be converted in mass of carbohydrate as a function of leaf area index (LAI), air temperature, absorbed solar radiation, photoperiod and cycle duration. Considering the correction factors related to respiration and LAI, this value can be converted into mass of carbohydrate, per hectare, produced during the cycle. To transform carbohydrate mass in dry biomass referring to each organ (leaf, root, stem and reproductive organs), the assimilates partition and dry matter composition. The potential productivity (PP) was computed using the total dry mass, harvest index and the grain water content. The water balance (Thornthwaite & Mather, 1955) was used to estimate the amount of soil water in the period before corn crop sowing date. The sequential water balance, with temporal variation of crop coefficient (Kc), was used to estimate crop (ETc) and actual (ETr) evapotranspirations. The depleted productivity was estimated using PP, ETr, ETc and the yield response factor (Ky) values. The climatic data of 16 counties in the Rio Grande do Sul State, the soil water holding capacity (50 mm) and stochastic procedures (normal and triangular distributions to simulate air temperature and insolation) were used to estimate PP and depleted corn productivity for each local in different sowing dates. The following conclusions can be reported: (i); the adaptation of the agroecological zone method allowed to calculate the PP and depleted productivity with coherent productivity values, as well as it identifies the best sowing date; and (ii) the stochastic procedure can be used in the following cases: the normal distribution approach can be utilized when air temperature historic series is available; and the triangular distribution (non-symmetric triangular distribution is preferable in relation to symmetric distribution) approach can be used when there is no historic series.

Com os objetivos de (i) elaborar uma adaptação do método da zona agroecológica, proposto por De Wit, para estimar a produtividade potencial e deplecionada da cultura de milho, utilizando procedimento estocástico, no Rio Grande do Sul; e de (ii) testar procedimentos estocásticos (distribuição normal truncada, triangular assimétrica e triangular simétrica) para simular dados de temperatura e de insolação para estimar produtividade potencial e deplecionada da cultura de milho, foi desenvolvida uma metodologia computacional. A quantidade de energia solar disponível às plantas (em função da latitude, declinação solar e nebulosidade), bem como a capacidade de sua conversão em fotossintetizado, contabilizado em termos de carboidrato, possibilita prever produtividade potencial de grãos de milho. Sem limitação de água no solo, o CO2 assimilado é convertido em massa de carboidrato em função do índice de área foliar (IAF), temperatura, radiação solar absorvida. fotoperíodo e duração do ciclo. Considerando os fatores de correção quanto à respiração e ao IAF, pode-se transformar a massa de carboidrato total final em massa de matéria seca referente a cada órgão (folha, raiz, colmo e órgão reprodutivo), considerando-se as partições de fotoassimilados e a composição da matéria seca. A produtividade potencial (PP) foi calculada com base na fitomassa seca total, no índice de colheita e no teor de água nos grãos. O balanço hídrico cíclico (Thornthwaite & Mather, 1955) foi utilizado para estimar o armazenamento de água no solo no decêndio que antecede a semeadura de milho. O balanço hídrico seqüencial, com variação do coeficiente de cultivo (Kc), foi utilizado para estimar a evapotranspiração da cultura (ETc) e a real (ETr). A produtividade deplecionada foi estimada a partir dos valores de PP, ETr, ETc e do coeficiente de resposta da cultura (Ky). Os dados climáticos de 16 municípios no Rio Grande do Sul, a capacidade de água dispoível (50 mm) e procedimentos estocásticos (distribuição normal truncada, triangular assimétrica e triangular simétrica para simular dados de temperatura e de insolação), foram usados para estimar PP e deplecionada para cada localidade, em diferentes épocas de semeadura. Com base nos resultados obtidos, conclui-se que: (i) a adaptação do método da zona agroecológica possibilita definir a ordem de grandeza das PP e deplecionada da cultura de milho, e produziu resultados coerentes com valores citados na literatura, identificando a melhor época de semeadura, e (ii) o procedimento estocástico pode ser utilizado nos seguintes casos: quando se dispõe de uma série histórica de temperatura, utiliza-se a distribuição normal truncada; quando não se dispõe de uma série histórica utiliza-se a distribuição triangular assimétrica, preferencialmente, ou a distribuição triangular simétrica. / With de purpose of (i) adapting of the agroecological zone method, proposed by De Wit, to estimate potential and depleted corn crop productivity, using stochastic procedure, in the Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil; and (ii) testing stochastic procedures (normal, and symmetric and non-symmetric distributions) to simulate air temperature and insolation data to estimate potential and depleted corn crop productivity, was developed a computational methodology. The amount of available solar energy to the plants (as function of the latitude, solar declination and cloudiness), as well as the capacity of energy conversion in photosyntates, computed in terms of carbohydrate, makes it possible to forecast corn productivity. Without soil water shortage the assimilated CO2 can be converted in mass of carbohydrate as a function of leaf area index (LAI), air temperature, absorbed solar radiation, photoperiod and cycle duration. Considering the correction factors related to respiration and LAI, this value can be converted into mass of carbohydrate, per hectare, produced during the cycle. To transform carbohydrate mass in dry biomass referring to each organ (leaf, root, stem and reproductive organs), the assimilates partition and dry matter composition. The potential productivity (PP) was computed using the total dry mass, harvest index and the grain water content. The water balance (Thornthwaite & Mather, 1955) was used to estimate the amount of soil water in the period before corn crop sowing date. The sequential water balance, with temporal variation of crop coefficient (Kc), was used to estimate crop (ETc) and actual (ETr) evapotranspirations. The depleted productivity was estimated using PP, ETr, ETc and the yield response factor (Ky) values. The climatic data of 16 counties in the Rio Grande do Sul State, the soil water holding capacity (50 mm) and stochastic procedures (normal and triangular distributions to simulate air temperature and insolation) were used to estimate PP and depleted corn productivity for each local in different sowing dates. The following conclusions can be reported: (i); the adaptation of the agroecological zone method allowed to calculate the PP and depleted productivity with coherent productivity values, as well as it identifies the best sowing date; and (ii) the stochastic procedure can be used in the following cases: the normal distribution approach can be utilized when air temperature historic series is available; and the triangular distribution (non-symmetric triangular distribution is preferable in relation to symmetric distribution) approach can be used when there is no historic series.

<p>This is a genetic study of flowering time in cultivated barley with the aim to identify the alleles contributing to rapid flowering and frost resistance. We have genotyped a collection of 23 historic barley varieties for the crucial genes [<em>VRN-1, VRN-2, VRN-3</em> (<em>HvFT</em>), <em>Ppd-H1, CO</em>, and <em>Vrs1</em>]. We have amplified the polymorphic mutations by PCR-based methods, and sequenced them to identify possible haplotype groups. The row type was not determined of all accessions, but all the Scandinavian varieties were found to carry mutant alleles of <em>Vrs1</em>, that indicates them to be six-row barleys. The deletion of the crucial segment of <em>VRN-1 </em>vernalization contributes dominant spring growth habit. We found haplotype groups 2 and 4 to be dominant in Northern barleys whereas haplotype groups 1 and 5 dominated in south. The presence of dominant allele <em>VRN-2</em> gene is addressed to floral repression until plants get vernalized. Most of the 23 varieties were found to have deleted allele of <em>VRN-2</em>, which is connected with a spring growth habit. The only four of the accessions that have the dominant allele of <em>Ppd-H1</em> that contribute flowering are generally from the south of Europe. <em>HvFT</em> and <em>CO</em> genes <em>CO</em>-interact to influence flowering time. <em>CO</em> haplotype grouping suggest a geographical distribution of different alleles but needs more disseminations. Certain <em>HvFT</em> alleles cause extremely early flowering during apex development in the varieties that have deletion of <em>VRN-2</em> alleles under long days. <em>VRN-3</em> alleles of 14 varieties were identified.</p>

Onset of flowering is a major transition in the plant life cycle and is controlled by environmental factors including photoperiod, light quality and temperature. Prevalence of controlling factors depends on species, hence physiological models were selected for their strong requirement for one or another environmental cue. Among Brassicaceae, Sinapis alba was intensively studied for its strong response to photoperiod while molecular-genetic analyses of Arabidopsis thaliana disclosed complex interactions between pathways inducing flowering in response to photoperiod and other environmental cues, such as vernalization. We were therefore interested in studying the vernalization process in S. alba and its interactions with the previously characterized floral response to long days (LDs). Two-week old seedlings grown in non-inductive short days (SDs) were vernalized at 7°C for increasing durations and a strong promotive effect of vernalization was observed. In contrast to the common view of vernalization as a preliminary step bringing the competence to flower, we observed that vernalization had a direct inductive effect on flowering: floral buds were initiated during cold-exposure. Floral integrator genes SaMADSA (homologous to SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CO 1) and SaLEAFY were up-regulated in the shoot apex after 3-4 weeks of vernalization. To monitor the vernalization process at the molecular level, we isolated SaFLC which, based on sequence analysis, expression patterns and complementation test, appeared as orthologous to FLOWERING LOCUS C. Down-regulation of SaFLC by vernalization was fast since transcript level was already very low after one week of vernalization, but stability of the repression required longer exposure to cold. To test the physiological significance of these observations, we studied the floral response to 16-h LDs after unstable and stable repression of SaFLC. We observed that one week of vernalization which was sufficient for SaFLC repression but not for maintenance of the silenced state - increased the flowering response of S. alba to LDs when the LDs just followed the cold treatment. This effect was lost after two weeks post-vernalization. In contrast, the promotive effect of longer vernalization on flowering response to LDs was maintained post-vernalization. These results suggested that vernalization not only works when plants experience long exposure to cold in winter: short cold periods might stimulate flowering of LD-plants if occurring when photoperiod is increasing, i.e. in spring.

In the 400-600 mm annual rainfall zone of the Sahel, soil fertility is the main determinant of yield in rainfed millet cropping systems in all but the driest years. Numerous on-farm and on-station experiments have addressed the issue of improving soil fertility. Yet the widespread use of the experimental results is restricted by the highly site specific millet response to fertility management practices due to high spatially variable soil properties as well as high intra- and inter-annual rainfall variability. Mathematical soil-crop growth simulation models could therefore suitably complement experimental research to support decision making regarding soil fertility under variable rainwater supply conditions. The objective of this thesis was therefore to develop the biophysical basis for the use of crop-soil models in decision support regarding water and soil fertility management and risk mitigation strategies in rainfed millet-based systems of Sahelian Niger. Because farmers rely on multiple cultivars with variable length of growing cycle due to sensitivity to temperature and photoperiod as part of their risk management strategies we first characterized seven Sahelian millet genotypes and parameterized the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM-millet model). The cultivars include three improved cultivars (CIVT, ICMV-IS-89305, ZATIB) and four landraces (Ankoutes, Hainikirey, Maewa and Zongo). Our research showed that only one of the cultivars, Maewa, was very photosensitive contrary to the six others. The majority of the agronomic state variables (leaf number, leaf area, biomass and grain yield) were negatively affected by late sowing (associated with lower air temperatures). This characterization enabled to compute for the first time in the Sahel the principal eco-physiological or genetic millet parameters (thermal times of development phases, leaf area dynamics) of crop growth models (e.g. APSIM, DSSAT). To gain confidence in the use of the APSIM model for decision support in the Sahelian environment, it was successfully tested to reproduce the agronomic state variables under non-limiting water and nutrient supply conditions. Moreover the APSIM model satisfactorily reproduced the millet CIVT cultivar response to water x N interaction from the combined application of crop residue, cattle manure and mineral fertilizer during two years and for contrasted rainfall conditions. Using the model with site and cultivar specific parameterization, we implemented two applications for decision support. A 23-year, long term factorial numerical experiment showed that a moderate N application of 15 kg N/ha is more appropriate for smallholder, subsistence farmers than the usual 30 kg N/ha recommendation. Although it implies a lower long term average yield than at 30 kg N/ha, the application of 15 kg N/ha guarantees both a higher minimum yield in extreme dry years and a lower inter-annual variability, thereby increasing food security and reducing farmers vulnerability. In the second model application, we integrated GIS information (land tenure, spatially distributed weather data, fertility management) and the APSIM model in a 12-year yield simulation to show that the spatial dispersion of fields of a household throughout the village territory (farmer risk management strategy) leads to more uniform yields across households and reduces the inter-annual yield variability in the Fakara region of Niger. Our research breaks the ground for several other applications of the use of crop-soil simulation models in millet-based systems in the Sahel, e.g. climate change impact and food crisis mitigation. / Dans la zone Sahélienne avec 400 à 600 mm de précipitation annuelle, la fertilité des sols est le principal facteur déterminant des rendements du mil pluvial hormis lors des années plus sèches. De nombreuses expérimentations au champ et en station ont abordé la question de l’amélioration de la fertilité des sols. Cependant, l’extrapolation de ces résultats, et a forciori leur utilisation par les agriculteurs, est limitée par le fait que la réponse du mil à ces pratiques de fertilité dépend fortement des propriétés des sols très variables dans l’espace ainsi que de la pluviométrie annuelle et sa répartition intra-annuelle. Les modèles mathématiques et dynamiques de simulation de la croissance des plantes peuvent donc utilement compléter la recherche expérimentale pour l’aide à la décision en ce qui concerne la gestion de la fertilité des sols dans diverses conditions d’alimentation hydrique. L’objectif de cette thèse était donc de développer les bases biophysiques pour l’utilisation de modèles de croissance des cultures en vue de leur utilisation comme outils d’aide à la décision en matière de gestion de l’eau et la fertilité des sols dans les systèmes de culture à base de mil en zone sahélienne du Niger. Puisque les paysans utilisent de multiples variétés de mil avec des cycles de croissance variables en tant qu’élément dans leurs stratégies de gestion des risques, nous avons d’abord caractérisé sept génotypes de mil Sahelien en vue de la paramétrisation du model dynamique APSIM (Agricultural Production Systems Simulator). Trois variétés améliorées (CIVT, ICMV-IS-89305, ZATIB) et quatre variétés locales paysannes (Ankoutes, Hainikirey, Maewa et Zongo) ont été étudiées. Notre recherche a montré que seule une des variétés, l’écotype Maewa, est très photosensible contrairement aux six autres. La majorité des variables agronomiques (nombre de feuille, surface foliaire, biomasse et rendement en grain) ont été négativement affectées par un semis tardif (associés à des températures de l’air plus faibles). Cette caractérisation a permis de calculer pour la première fois au Sahel les principaux paramètres éco-physiologiques du mil (durée thermique des phases de développement, dynamique de la surface foliaire), indispensables aux modèles dynamiques de croissance des plantes tels qu’APSIM et DSSAT. Le modèle APSIM a permis de reproduire avec succès les variables agronomiques de 6 des 7 variétés de mil en condition nonlimitante d’apport en eau et en nutriments. De plus, le modèle APSIM a reproduit de manière satisfaisante la réponse de la variété améliorée CIVT à l’interaction de l’eau et de l’azote suite à l’apport combiné de résidus de récolte, de fumier de bétail et d’engrais minéral sur deux années ayant des pluviométries contrastées. Ceci a permis de renforcer la confiance dans l’utilisation du modèle APSIM comme outil d’aide à la décision dans l’environnement Sahélien. Sur base du modèle APSIM ainsi paramétrisé pour des conditions spécifiques de site et de variété, nous avons développé deux applications en matière d’aide à la décision. Une expérimentation factorielle numérique à long terme (23 ans) a révélé que l’application d’une dose modérée d’azote (15 kg N/ha) est plus appropriée dans le contexte d’une agriculture de subsistance que la recommandation habituelle de 30 kg N/ha. Bien qu’elle implique un rendement moyen à long terme inférieur à celui obtenu avec 30 kg N/ha, l’application de 15 kg N/ha garantit un plus grand rendement minimum pendant les années sèches extrêmes et une variabilité inter-annuelle plus faible, ce qui permet de garantir une meilleure sécurité alimentaire tout en réduisant la vulnérabilité des paysans. Dans la deuxième application du modèle, nous avons intégré des données SIG (parcellaire villageois, données climatiques et de pratiques de gestion de fertilité distribuées dans l’espace) et le modèle APSIM dans une simulation de rendement de mil sur 12 années. Ceci a permis de montrer que la dispersion spatiale des champs d’un ménage dans le terroir villageois (stratégie paysanne de gestion du risque) permet l’obtention de rendements plus uniformes entre ménages au sein du même village et de réduire la variabilité inter-annuelle des rendements de chaque ménage dans la région de Fakara au Niger. Notre recherche ouvre la voie à plusieurs autres applications de l’utilisation des modèles dynamiques de croissance des plantes dans les systèmes à base de mil au Sahel, par exemple dans l’étude de l’impact des changements climatiques et de prévention des crises alimentaires.

This is a genetic study of flowering time in cultivated barley with the aim to identify the alleles contributing to rapid flowering and frost resistance. We have genotyped a collection of 23 historic barley varieties for the crucial genes [VRN-1, VRN-2, VRN-3 (HvFT), Ppd-H1, CO, and Vrs1]. We have amplified the polymorphic mutations by PCR-based methods, and sequenced them to identify possible haplotype groups. The row type was not determined of all accessions, but all the Scandinavian varieties were found to carry mutant alleles of Vrs1, that indicates them to be six-row barleys. The deletion of the crucial segment of VRN-1 vernalization contributes dominant spring growth habit. We found haplotype groups 2 and 4 to be dominant in Northern barleys whereas haplotype groups 1 and 5 dominated in south. The presence of dominant allele VRN-2 gene is addressed to floral repression until plants get vernalized. Most of the 23 varieties were found to have deleted allele of VRN-2, which is connected with a spring growth habit. The only four of the accessions that have the dominant allele of Ppd-H1 that contribute flowering are generally from the south of Europe. HvFT and CO genes CO-interact to influence flowering time. CO haplotype grouping suggest a geographical distribution of different alleles but needs more disseminations. Certain HvFT alleles cause extremely early flowering during apex development in the varieties that have deletion of VRN-2 alleles under long days. VRN-3 alleles of 14 varieties were identified.

Ptilotus nobilis is a short-lived perennial wildflower, native to semi-arid and arid areas of Australia. Propagation by vegetative means is constrained by the early onset and a continuous flowering habit. Despite being defined as the main barrier for vegetative propagation no published research on floral induction and initiation was found. The aim of this study is to provide the first insights into floral evocation in P. nobilis, with the general objectives being to investigate floral induction and initiation, find the means to maintain plants in the vegetative phase, enhance leaf initiation and to gain knowledge of growth and development with an emphasis on light intensity, temperature and daylength. Early experiments aimed to increase the understanding of growth and development. The main cardinal events were identified including the onset of branching (axillary stem growth), visible bud stage, first floret opening and maturity of the inflorescence. To aid future cultivation schedules, four growing degree days (GDD) and one chronological model, using days after sowing (DAS), were established and validated. All GDD models were accurate in predicting first floret opening and maturity, but not in predicting visible bud stage. Best prediction was achieved by using an upper temperature threshold of 18.2 ºC and an own base temperature of 5.0 ºC. Days after sowing were an accurate means of prediction, indicating that temperature and other variables such as light intensity regulate development. A series of defoliation treatments investigated the maintenance of P. nobilis plants in the vegetative phase. Within all treatments, reproductive structures were observed and all plants with more than two true leaves entered the reproductive phase. Plants with less than two true leaves showed a delayed floral bud appearance by up to 20 days. Floral development was affected by most defoliation treatments resulting in vegetative growth within the inflorescences. It is hypothesized that plants have a very short juvenile phase and that a constant floral stimulus may be needed for floral evocation. Using scanning electron and light microscopy a template for the transition from vegetative to reproductive phase was developed. Bract initiation was accompanied by a significant increase in meristem area and diameter, and was defined as the onset of flowering. The established template was used in a subsequent glasshouse trial, which revealed that floral initiation occurred very early and at 25 DAS all plants had entered the reproductive phase. Branching and leaf area expansion were identified as post- initiation processes. Plants were exposed to different light intensities (229.3, 398.6 and 909.3 µmol m-2 s-1) in a glasshouse. Under low light, final leaf number increased by up to three leaves, indicating that the vegetative phase was prolonged. Cardinal events were delayed but all plants reached maturity. It was concluded that a light intensity of 229.3 µmol m-2 s-1 was not low enough to prevent floral initiation and that a further decrease of light intensity in combination with temperature could be more effective. Interactions of light intensity, temperature and daylength were investigated. Plants were grown under high light and low light (< 1.2 MJ m-2) intensities, 25/10 ºC and 35/20 ºC and daylengths of 11 h and 16 h. During the trial period (42 days), low light intensity suppressed floral initiation and high temperatures maintained more plants (70%) in the vegetative phase. However daylength treatments had no effect on the time of bract initiation or the percentage of vegetative plants. After 83 days floral buds and axillary stems were observed on some plants under low light intensity, indicating the onset of the reproductive phase and showing that P. nobilis could not be maintained in the vegetative phase indefinitely. Plants under high light were harvested at maturity and effects of temperature and daylength were analysed. Final leaf number increased under 35/20 ºC supporting the previously established results that floral initiation was delayed and leaf production enhanced by high temperature. Morphological data was collected to classify the photoperiodic response of P. nobilis. Plants under 25/10 ºC and 11 h had the longest inflorescences and greatest number of buds and flowers, which was also reflected in the buds and flowers dry weight, with an increase of up to 3.4 fold under these conditions. The difficulty of classifying some plants accordingly to their photoperiodic response and the proposal that P. nobilis may be a facultative short day plant under 25/10 ºC is discussed. In summary, this study presents the first evidence that P. nobilis has a very short juvenile phase and that growth and development are mainly driven by light intensity and temperature. It was possible to enhance vegetative growth by defoliation, low light intensity and high temperatures, however this did not fully prevent flowering, which indicates that P. nobilis has a very strong flowering response or signal.

Ptilotus nobilis is a short-lived perennial wildflower, native to semi-arid and arid areas of Australia. Propagation by vegetative means is constrained by the early onset and a continuous flowering habit. Despite being defined as the main barrier for vegetative propagation no published research on floral induction and initiation was found. The aim of this study is to provide the first insights into floral evocation in P. nobilis, with the general objectives being to investigate floral induction and initiation, find the means to maintain plants in the vegetative phase, enhance leaf initiation and to gain knowledge of growth and development with an emphasis on light intensity, temperature and daylength. Early experiments aimed to increase the understanding of growth and development. The main cardinal events were identified including the onset of branching (axillary stem growth), visible bud stage, first floret opening and maturity of the inflorescence. To aid future cultivation schedules, four growing degree days (GDD) and one chronological model, using days after sowing (DAS), were established and validated. All GDD models were accurate in predicting first floret opening and maturity, but not in predicting visible bud stage. Best prediction was achieved by using an upper temperature threshold of 18.2 ºC and an own base temperature of 5.0 ºC. Days after sowing were an accurate means of prediction, indicating that temperature and other variables such as light intensity regulate development. A series of defoliation treatments investigated the maintenance of P. nobilis plants in the vegetative phase. Within all treatments, reproductive structures were observed and all plants with more than two true leaves entered the reproductive phase. Plants with less than two true leaves showed a delayed floral bud appearance by up to 20 days. Floral development was affected by most defoliation treatments resulting in vegetative growth within the inflorescences. It is hypothesized that plants have a very short juvenile phase and that a constant floral stimulus may be needed for floral evocation. Using scanning electron and light microscopy a template for the transition from vegetative to reproductive phase was developed. Bract initiation was accompanied by a significant increase in meristem area and diameter, and was defined as the onset of flowering. The established template was used in a subsequent glasshouse trial, which revealed that floral initiation occurred very early and at 25 DAS all plants had entered the reproductive phase. Branching and leaf area expansion were identified as post- initiation processes. Plants were exposed to different light intensities (229.3, 398.6 and 909.3 µmol m-2 s-1) in a glasshouse. Under low light, final leaf number increased by up to three leaves, indicating that the vegetative phase was prolonged. Cardinal events were delayed but all plants reached maturity. It was concluded that a light intensity of 229.3 µmol m-2 s-1 was not low enough to prevent floral initiation and that a further decrease of light intensity in combination with temperature could be more effective. Interactions of light intensity, temperature and daylength were investigated. Plants were grown under high light and low light (< 1.2 MJ m-2) intensities, 25/10 ºC and 35/20 ºC and daylengths of 11 h and 16 h. During the trial period (42 days), low light intensity suppressed floral initiation and high temperatures maintained more plants (70%) in the vegetative phase. However daylength treatments had no effect on the time of bract initiation or the percentage of vegetative plants. After 83 days floral buds and axillary stems were observed on some plants under low light intensity, indicating the onset of the reproductive phase and showing that P. nobilis could not be maintained in the vegetative phase indefinitely. Plants under high light were harvested at maturity and effects of temperature and daylength were analysed. Final leaf number increased under 35/20 ºC supporting the previously established results that floral initiation was delayed and leaf production enhanced by high temperature. Morphological data was collected to classify the photoperiodic response of P. nobilis. Plants under 25/10 ºC and 11 h had the longest inflorescences and greatest number of buds and flowers, which was also reflected in the buds and flowers dry weight, with an increase of up to 3.4 fold under these conditions. The difficulty of classifying some plants accordingly to their photoperiodic response and the proposal that P. nobilis may be a facultative short day plant under 25/10 ºC is discussed. In summary, this study presents the first evidence that P. nobilis has a very short juvenile phase and that growth and development are mainly driven by light intensity and temperature. It was possible to enhance vegetative growth by defoliation, low light intensity and high temperatures, however this did not fully prevent flowering, which indicates that P. nobilis has a very strong flowering response or signal.

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2016-05-12T19:07:27Z No. of bitstreams: 1 viniciusjosepilate.pdf: 783213 bytes, checksum: da2d70d6a4638a79930055e8f708be6c (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2016-06-27T20:07:20Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 viniciusjosepilate.pdf: 783213 bytes, checksum: da2d70d6a4638a79930055e8f708be6c (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-27T20:07:20Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 viniciusjosepilate.pdf: 783213 bytes, checksum: da2d70d6a4638a79930055e8f708be6c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-02-27 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O conhecimento dos aspectos biológicos, morfológicos e comportamentais dos moluscos terrestres é importante para o desenvolvimento de medidas de controle de pragas e de estratégias de conservação de espécies. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo caracterizar os padrões de biologia, conquiliomorfometria e comportamento da espécie Dysopeas muibum e verificar os efeitos do isolamento e do fotoperíodo sobre seu ciclo de vida e a morfometria da concha, em condições de laboratório. Foi realizado o acompanhamento do crescimento da concha, da liberação de filhotes e da mortalidade de 160 moluscos, dos quais 40 foram mantidos isolados e 120 agrupados (10 moluscos por grupo; 40 em condições naturais de temperatura, umidade relativa do ar e fotoperíodo, e 80 tendo estas condições controladas – 40 com dias longos e 40 com dias curtos), desde o nascimento até 180 dias de vida, quando então foram aferidas as medidas da concha. Para verificar o horário de atividade e compor o etograma, 30 moluscos adultos (10 moluscos por grupo) foram observados durante 24 horas contínuas, através do método de varredura, com registro dos atos comportamentais a intervalos de 20 minutos. Já para verificar a ocorrência de agregação e a preferência por sítio de repouso, durante cinco dias, a intervalos de 24 horas, foram observados de 30 moluscos adultos (10 moluscos por grupo): número de agregações, de indivíduos agregados e isolados, e de indivíduos sob o disco com alimento, sob o disco sem alimento, sobre o substrato, enterrados e na parede do terrário. Para todas as análises, os moluscos foram criados em terrários plásticos vedados com tecido de algodão e elástico, contendo como substrato terra vegetal esterilizada e umedecida com água de torneira, e alimentados com ração para frangos de corte enriquecida com carbonato de cálcio. Foi verificado que a espécie ocorre no município de Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, possui parte mole amarelada e concha pequena e alongada, e é capaz de se reproduzir por autofecundação. Possui crescimento indeterminado, fecundidade aumentando com o tamanho corporal, iteroparidade e baixa mortalidade antes e após a maturidade sexual, não tendo o fotoperíodo efeito sobre esses padrões. As condições controladas de temperatura, umidade relativa do ar e fotoperíodo favoreceram o crescimento, maiores valores conquiliomorfométricos e o rápido alcance da maturidade sexual, enquanto a diminuição do comprimento do dia favoreceu a fecundidade. O isolamento aumentou o número total de filhotes, o número de filhotes por molusco parental e o intervalo entre eventos reprodutivos, reduziu o número de eventos reprodutivos e de filhotes por evento, e não influenciou o crescimento, o alcance da maturidade sexual, a relação crescimento-reprodução, a mortalidade e a conquiliomorfometria. O etograma foi composto por oito atos comportamentais: repousar, estar enterrado, deslocar, enterrar, explorar, alimentar, emergir e interagir. A espécie apresentou maior tendência ao repouso e a locomoção foi o ato comportamental de atividade prevalente, não apresentou horário de atividade predominantemente noturno e comportamento agregativo, e seu sítio preferido para o repouso foi o enterramento no substrato. / Knowledge of biological, morphological and behavioral characteristics of terrestrial molluscs is important for the development of pest control measures and strategies for the conservation of species. This study aimed to characterize the patterns of biology, conchiliomorphometric and behavior of the species Dysopeas muibum and check the effects of isolation and photoperiod on its life cycle and shell morphometry, under laboratory conditions. We conducted monitoring growth of the shell, release of puppies and mortality of 160 molluscs, of which 40 were kept isolated and 120 grouped (10 molluscs per group; 40 in natural conditions of temperature, relative humidity and photoperiod, and 80 with controlled conditions – 40 with long days and 40 with short days), from birth to 180 days of life, when the measures of the shell were taken. To check the schedule of activity and compose the ethogram, 30 adult molluscs (10 molluscs per group) were observed for 24 continuous hours, through the scanning method, with a record of behavioral acts at intervals of 20 minutes. For verifying the occurrence of aggregation and the preference for resting place, for five days, at 24 hour intervals, were observed in 30 adult molluscs (10 molluscs per group): number of aggregations, of aggregates and isolated individuals, and of individuals below the disc with food, below the disc without food, on the substrate, buried and in the wall of terrarium. For all analyzes, the molluscs were reared in plastic terrariums sealed with cotton fabric and elastic, containing plant soil sterile and moistened with tap water, and fed with food to broilers enriched with calcium carbonate. It was found that the species occurs in the Juiz de Fora City, MG, Brazil, has the soft yellowish and small and elongated shell, and is able to reproduce by self-fertilization. It has indeterminate growth, fecundity increases with body size, iteroparity and low mortality before and after sexual maturity, not having the photoperiod effect on these patterns. The controlled conditions of temperature, relative humidity and photoperiod favored growth, conchiliomorphometric values higher and fast reach sexual maturity, while the decrease in day length favored fecundity. The isolation increased the total number of pups, number of pups per parent mollusc and the interval between reproductive events, reduced the number of reproductive events and pups per event, and did not influence growth, reach sexual maturity, growth-reproduction relation, mortality and conchiliomorphometric. The ethogram was composed of eight behavioral acts: lie, lie buried, move, bury, explore, food, emerge and interact. The species had a greater tendency to rest and locomotion was the behavioral act prevalent activity, showed no activity time predominantly nocturnal and affiliative behavior, and their favorite place to rest was buried in substrate.