La mondialisation et les changements globaux actuels ont un impact considérable sur la distribution des espèces et la composition des communautés. Lorsque ces espèces sont impliquées dans une interaction hôte-parasite les changements dans leur répartition peuvent entraîner la (ré)émergence de maladies infectieuses. La fasciolose, maladie causée par les grandes douves du foie (Fasciola hepatica et Fasciola gigantica) est réémergente dans de nombreux points du globe. Il est difficile de mettre en place des programmes de contrôle parce que (1) les hôtes intermédiaires, des mollusques d’eau douce de la famille des Lymnaeidae, sont composés d’un groupe d’espèces cryptiques difficilement identifiables et (2) plusieurs espèces impliquées dans cette maladie sont invasives. L’objectif de cette thèse était d’étudier les facteurs écologiques et évolutifs à large échelle de l’interaction entre la grande douve du foie et ses hôtes intermédiaires susceptibles de favoriser une (ré)émergence de la fasciolose. J’ai, dans un premier temps, développé des approches moléculaires pour reconnaître les espèces cryptiques tant du côté de la grande douve du foie que du côté des Lymnaeidae. L’utilisation d’une des techniques développées sur Galba schirazensis, Galba cubensis et Galba truncatula, trois espèces de limnées, m’a permis d’identifier leur distribution respective et de modéliser leur niches bioclimatiques grâce à l’utilisation de modèles de niches écologiques. Cette approche de modélisation de niches permet d’inférer la distribution potentielle des trois espèces et nous amène à discuter des avantages potentiels de ces modèles dans la gestion de la fasciolose. Dans un second temps, je me suis intéressée à la structuration de la diversité génétique chez des espèces invasives du système grande douve du foie-limnée, par des approches de génétique des populations et de phylogénie. J’ai pu retracer l’histoire de colonisation, les dynamiques démographiques et le système de reproduction chez P. columella, G. schirazensis et G. cubensis. J’ai montré que ces trois espèces font préférentiellement de l’autofécondation entrainant des pertes drastiques de diversité génétiques sur le front d’invasion. G. cubensis présente cependant une coexistence de plusieurs génotypes dans les aires anciennement colonisées. Les différences génétiques entre ces trois espèces sont discutées à la lumière de ce qu’on sait de leur écologie. Enfin ces résultats m’ont permis de discuter de l’avantage d'être autofécondant en cas d’invasion biologique. Pour conclure l’invasion par ces populations d’hôtes intermédiaires dépourvus de diversité génétique pourrait représenter un risque épidémiologique. En effet un parasite a plus de probabilité de circuler dans une population hôte clonale que dans une population polymorphe. Cette thèse fait le lien entre écologie, interactions hôtes-parasites et génétique de l’invasion afin de mieux comprendre les facteurs d’expansion de la fasciolose à échelle globale. / Globalization and the current global change have significant impacts on species distribution and community composition. When these species are involved in a host-parasite interaction, changes in species range distribution can result in the (re)emergence of infectious diseases. Fasciolosis, a disease caused by the liver flukes (Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica) is reemerging in many parts of the world. It is difficult to implement control programs because (1) the intermediate hosts, freshwater molluscs of the Lymnaeidae family, are composed by a group of cryptic species (2) several species involved in this system are invasive. The objective of this thesis was to study the ecological and evolutionary factors at a large scale in the interaction between the liver fluke and its intermediate hosts that might drive to fasciolosis (re)emergence. First, I developed molecular approaches to quickly identify cryptic species on the two liver flukes and on three Lymnaeidae species. Using one of these techniques, I identify the respective distribution of Galba schirazensis, Galba cubensis and Galba truncatula and infer their respective climatic envelope by ecological niche modelling. We then modelled and projected the potential species distribution ranges. We discussed the contribution of models to predict the species distribution in space and time giving a considerable advantage to control fasciolosis. I then study the genetic diversity structuration in invasive snails involved in the transmission of F. hepatica, using population genetics and phylogeny. I could infer colonization history, population dynamics and reproductive system of Pseudosuccinea columella, G. schirazensis and G. cubensis. I showed that these three species preferentially make inbreeding causing drastic losses of genetic diversity in the invasion front. However G. cubensis presents a coexistence of several genotypes in formerly colonized areas. Genetic differences between these three species are discussed in the light of what we know about their ecology. Overall, these results illustrate how dramatic the reduction in genetic diversity can be for hermaphrodite animals. Finally, we discuss the epidemiological risk related to the invasion by intermediate hosts depleted in genetic diversity. Indeed, a parasite might circulate easily in a clonal host population than in a polymorphic population. In my thesis I linked ecology, host-parasite interactions with genetics of the invasion to better understand the expansion of fasciolosis at a global scale.

The Fairy shrimp Branchinecta gaini Daday, 1910 is the largest freshwater invertebrate in Antarctica and the top-level consumer of local freshwater food webs. Ecological demands of B. gaini that are accompanied by 'ruderal' life strategy together with its spatial distribution that exceeds to Patagonia indicate that it had survived last glacial period in South America and expanded to Antarctica shortly after this epoch endeed. On James Ross Island that is the most extreme environment where B. gaini occurs today was this fairy shrimp considered extinct until year 2008. Its disappearance was based on paleolimnological analysis of several lake sediment cores according to which it inhabited this island between years 4200 to approximately 1500 before present when it died out because of changes in lake catchments caused by harsh neoglacial conditions. Paleolimnological analysis of Monolith Lake presented in this study has shown that this assumption was wrong and B. gaini has lived on James Ross Island throughout neoglacial period up to recent time. Phylogeographic analysis of 16S rDNA of specimens from Patagonia, South Orkneys, South Shetlands and James Ross Island revealed that its high morphological diversity is not supported by this gene and that all examined populations of B. gaini is one species with very few...

Comprendre l'organisation de la biodiversité, notamment la distribution et l'abondance des espèces, est une question centrale en écologie. De par son caractère dynamique et parce qu'elle est distribuée à tous les niveaux du vivant, la compréhension des mécanismes sous-jacents permettant sa création et son maintien inclue nécessairement une composante temporelle et spatiale et implique des processus écologiques et évolutifs. Les grottes sous-marines constituent un habitat tout indiqué pour les étudier, car leurs conditions environnementales particulières suggèrent des mécanismes de maintien de la biodiversité particulièrement actifs. De plus, leur caractère naturellement fragmenté permet une différenciation plus aisée des processus agissant à différentes échelles spatiales. Par leur abondance, tant en terme d'espèces que d'individus, les mysidacés cavernicoles en Méditerranée, représentent de ce fait un bon modèle d'étude de ces mécanismes. À l'échelle locale de la parcelle d'habitat, l'étude de l'écologie trophique des cinq espèces de mysidacés cavernicoles (Hemimysis margalefi, H. speluncola, H. lamornae mediterranea, Siriella gracilipes, Harmelinella mariannae) a permis de mettre en évidence l'importance des stratégies alimentaires dans leur maintien. En effet, ces espèces persistent et coexistent non seulement grâce à un partage classique et spatial des ressources et des sites de nourrissage, mais aussi parce que certains sites de nourrissage importants se trouvent à l'extérieur des grottes sous-marines. / Understanding processes of biodiversity creation and maintenance is a central question in ecology. Because biodiversity is dynamic and distributed across all levels of life, identifying underlying mechanisms necessarily takes into account temporal and spatial scales and involves ecological as well as evolutionary processes. Underwater caves are particularly appropriate to address such a question. Indeed, the harsh environmental conditions of this habitat suggest active mechanisms of biodiversity maintenance. In addition, the highly fragmented nature of this habitat facilitates the distinction between the spatial scales at which processes may operate. In the Mediterranean, the high diversity and abundance of cave-dwelling mysids may help identifying the underlying processes that govern biodiversity distribution. At the scale of a habitat patch, the trophic ecology of the main five cave-dwelling mysids (Hemimysis margalefi, H. speluncola, H. lamornae mediterranea, Siriella gracilipes, Harmelinella mariannae) reveals that persistence and coexistence are allowed by trophic strategies such as classical and spatial resource partitioning. In addition, some of the important feeding sites are located outside caves in the productive euphotic zone. This is of particular importance since mysids can bring organic matter from the outside into the caves by way of circadian migrations. This transfer of organic matter can be important in contributing to the persistence of other cave-dwellers.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Moss frogs are restricted to permanently moist terrestrial habitats in the south-western Cape Fold Mountains. There is a very close association between Arthroleptella distribution and Table Mountain Sandstone. Suitable habitats are generally occupied by allopatric populations of moss frogs. Comprehensive spatial sampling of moss frogs (genus Arthroleptella) in the Cape Floristic Region biodiversity hotspot yielded 192 new distribution records; 5 842 advertisement calls from 240 individual male frogs; 31 Rag-1,76 16S, 54 12S sequences and morphological measurements of 90 specimens. There are many differences in male advertisement call and genetic sequences between populations on different mountain ranges, even over small distances. A mitochondrial and nuclear gene phylogeny of the southern African Pyxicephalidae places Natalobatrachus as the sister genus to Arthroleptella. Application of a Bayesian relaxed molecular clock model indicates that Arthroleptella arose between 20 and 39 Ma. Phylogenetic trees return two main clades within Arthroleptella: one consists of species which exhibit chirp-like calls and the second contains species with longer calls composed of a series of clicks. These two clades diverged between 19 and 22 Ma. There is a general pattern of strong phylogeographic structure with many small, isolated populations. Three species are identified within the Chirping clade and seven in the Clicking clade, including three undescribed species. This population structure is a result of the patchy distribution of suitable habitat and low vagility of the moss frogs.The distribution and speciation of moss frogs has been affected by drying and cooling climate change, changing geomorphology over the last 20 Ma and the increasing prevalence of fire over the last 5 Ma. An assessment of the threat status of each species according to IUCN criteria categorised one species as Least Concern, seven as Near Threatened, one as Vulnerable and one as Critically Endangered. The primary threats to Arthroleptella are invasive alien plants and increased fire frequencies and intensities.

Les invasions biologiques se sont intensifiées au cours des dernières décennies en raison d’une accélération des échanges commerciaux. Ces invasions représentent une menace pour les écosystèmes et de nombreuses activités anthropiques, il est donc crucial de comprendre les mécanismes qui les sous-tendent afin de mieux prévoir et limiter leurs impacts. Dans cette thèse, j’aborde la question du potentiel dispersif d’espèces natives et non natives impliquées dans une association phorétique nouvellement formée. En particulier, je me focalise sur le cas de l’association entre un nématode invasif ravageur des pinèdes, le nématode du pin (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) et son insecte vecteur endémique en Europe (Monochamus galloprovincialis). J’ai tout d’abord étudié les flux de gènes de l’insecte vecteur seul afin d’identifier les barrières à sa dispersion. J’ai ensuite simulé l’expansion spatiale du couple nématode-vecteur à l’aide d’un modèle de dispersion, en intégrant l’effet synergique de cette nouvelle association. Les résultats obtenus au cours de cette thèse montrent qu’il existe un important potentiel de dispersion du nématode invasif en Europe par le biais de cette association phorétique. En revanche, certains paramètres de l’environnement tels que les reliefs et les températures basses qui leur sont associées, ainsi que les fortes densités en pins constituent des barrières à la dispersion du vecteur et donc des obstacles potentiels à l’expansion du nématode invasif. Au-delà des apports relatifs au modèle d’étude, cette thèse a conduit au développement de plusieurs méthodes pouvant être adaptées à d’autres cas d’associations phorétiques nouvelles et, par extension, contribuer à la compréhension de la dispersion des espèces au sein de ces systèmes complexes et peu étudiés. / Biological invasions dramatically increased over the last decades due to the intensification of international trade. These invasions constitute a threat for ecosystems and many anthropic activities, therefore it is crucial to understand underlying processes in order to better predict and manage their impacts. In this PhD thesis, I explore the potential of dispersion of native and non-native species involved in a novel phoretic association. I focus on the case of the association between a pest for pine forests, the pinewood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) introduced in Europe, and its endemic insect vector (Monochamus galloprovincialis). I first estimated gene flows of the insect vector alone in order to identify the barriers and corridors to dispersal of this species. Then I have simulated the spatial spread of the nematode-vector couple using a spread model, and accounting for the synergistic effect of this novel association. The results obtained during this PhD showed that the invasive nematode has an important potential to spread through this phoretic association. However, some environmental features such as elevation, areas with low temperatures, and the high pine densities constitute barriers to dispersal of the vector and so, potential obstacles to the spread of the invasive nematode. Beyond these results focused on the model of study, this thesis has led to the development of several methods that may be adapted to other cases of novel phoretic association and, by extension, may contribute to a better understanding of dispersal of species involved in those complex and poorly known systems.

All previous taxonomic studies on the Ectemnorhinus group of weevils have been based primarily on morphological data. While these studies are invaluable, some questions can only be addressed adequately through molecular studies. This is especially true when studying the genetic relationships and phylogeograpic patterns of taxa endemic to the South Indian Ocean Province (SIP) biotas that have long been controversial. The Ectemnorhinus group of genera is a monophyletic unit of weevils endemic to the region. The present study focused mainly on the Ectemnorhinus group of weevils found on the Prince Edward Islands archipelago (PEIA). The mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I gene was targeted when investigating relationships among members of this weevil group. On the PEIA, it is important to note that Marion Island (MI) and Prince Edward Island (PEI) differ in terms of alien invasive species, such as the introduced house mouse Mus musculus and in conservation management strategies. Since emergence, a series of volcanic and glaciation events have occurred on Marion Island, whilst Prince Edward Island has remained largely unaffected by glaciation. Phylogenetic analyses revealed the presence of two genetically and morphometrically distinct species of Ectemnorhinus weevils on PEI, whilst evidence for a single species, comprising diverse genetically discrete populations was found on MI. Based on these results, the species unique to PEI has been designated E. kuscheli n. sp., whilst the present study confirmed the synonymy between E. similis and E. marioni, the two species originally described from MI. Ectemnorhinus kucheli appears to be restricted to PEI, whereas E. similis occurs on both MI and PEI. When investigating the population dynamics of the Ectemnorhinus weevils on the PEIA, the data indicated that PEI was the first of the two islands of the PEIA to be colonized by Ectemnorhinus weevils, at an estimated time of coalescence of approximately 0.3116 million years ago (MYA). The PEI population then acted as the source population for the colonization of MI by Ectemnorhinus weevils some time before the last glaciation, approximately 10 000 to 35 000 years ago. The separation by distance of the PEI Ectemnorhinus weevils from those on MI then gave rise to two species by allopatric speciation on MI. During the last glaciations, MI was extensively glaciated with only the southwestern corner of the island being free of ice. This extensive glaciation of MI would have resulted in the eradication of all E. similis on MI except for those occurring on the ice-free southwestern corner of the island. At the end of the last glacial maximum, when the ice started to melt, the coastal areas of MI emerged first from beneath the ice and were available for re-colonization by weevils. The movement of weevils that were isolated in the south-western corner of MI, along the coastal areas of the island, was assisted by strong, frequent south-western winds. Subsequent, post-glacial volcanism during the Holocene was then responsible for the fragmentation of the new migrants, resulting in small population pockets surrounded by fresh, uninhabitable lava and subsequent divergence of each populations. When the Holocene black lava became re-colonizeable, the weevils from the different isolated populations migrated to the remainder of the island. Currently, members of the different genetically-identified populations occur in sympatry and in some cases even on the same plant, but no noticeable geneflow was detected between them. It is thus suggested that the time of isolation, before the post-glacial black lava during Holocene became hospitable, was sufficiently long and the populations sufficiently small that a number of genetically-discrete populations arose. Consequently, the present study recognises two genetically discrete populations of E. kucheli on PEI and seven discrete E. similis populations on MI that are morphologically indistinct. When examining the relationships among 13 species from five different islands within the South Indian Ocean Province (SIP) that are representative of 22 populations within the genera Palirhoeus, Bothrometopus and Ectemnorhinus, there was little support for separating the genus Palirhoeus from Bothrometopus, and no support for the morphologically-delineated species groups currently recognized within Bothrometopus. The present study shows that colonization of the Prince Edward Islands is likely to have occurred repeatedly from other islands within the SIP and that Bothrometopus parvulus on the PEIA comprises two species that are not sister taxa. The second novel con-generic species was therefore designated Bothrometopus huntleyi n. sp. and examination of the genetically identified specimens resulted in the indentification of distinguishing morphological characteristics. The analyses indicated that B. huntleyi arose approximately 0.5 million years ago from a high-altitude population that is still present on MI. The first major intra- and inter-island dispersal event occurred ~0.338 MYA, coinciding with the glaciation-free second volcanic stage on MI. Apart from this early inter-island colonisation, only one other between-island dispersal event, corresponding with the glaciation-free seventh volcanic stage, was detected. Genetically discrete weevil complexes on each of the islands of the PEIA together with the low levels of inter-island gene flow reaffirm the need to control alien invasive mice, which are restricted to MI, and which prey on these weevil species. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted

Un ensemble de disciplines tente de comprendre les causes de la distribution de la biodiversité à la surface de la terre. Cette thèse, à l'interface entre macro-écologie et phylogéographie, démêle le rôle relatif des différents facteurs environnementaux et des processus contrôlant la diversité des crustacés aquatiques souterrains en Europe. L'utilisation d'un modèle biologique souterrain permet d'écarter l'effet de la saisonnalité thermique, omniprésente dans les milieux de surface. L'action de multiples facteurs – plus particulièrement la disponibilité des ressources trophiques et l'hétérogénéité environnementale – et les variations régionales de leur importance relative fournissent l'explication la plus parcimonieuse des patrons de richesse. Ce résultat s'oppose au paradigme du rôle prépondérant du processus d'extinction causé par les fortes oscillations climatiques du Pléistocène en Europe du nord. Toutefois, ces oscillations ont très probablement sélectionné des organismes mobiles qui participent à l'augmentation de la taille moyenne des aires de répartition des espèces avec la latitude. La reconstruction de la dynamique des aires de distribution montre que la dispersion est un processus très hétérogène entre et au sein des espèces. Elle interviendrait lors de courtes fenêtres temporelles entre lesquelles l'adaptation locale tendrait au contraire, à contrecarrer les capacités de dispersion. Enfin, ce travail propose des pistes de réflexion afin d'expliquer plus précisément, à partir de données moléculaires supplémentaires et d'outils génomiques, les variations géographiques des taux de diversification et de substitution à l'échelle continentale / A set of disciplines attempt to understand causes of biodiversity patterns on the earth. This thesis, at the frontier between macroecology and phylogeography, disentangles the relative influence of environmental factors and processes shaping groundwater crustacean diversity in Europe. Groundwater habitats offer useful case studies for avoiding the effect of thermal seasonality, which is pervasive in surface ecosystems. The influence of multiple factors – especially productive energy and spatial heterogeneity – and regional variation in their relative importance provide the most parsimonious explanation of species richness patterns. This result undermines the prominent role attributed to the disproportionate extinction of species in northern European regions with high historical climate oscillations. However, these oscillations have probably selected vagile species which contribute to the increase in median range size of species with latitude. Reconstructing range dynamics shows that dispersal is a heterogeneous process within and among species. It may occur during short time windows between which local adaptation favors specialization. Finally, I suggest several research avenues using molecular data and genomic tools for understanding geographical variation in diversification and substitution rates at continental scale

A Mata Atlântica representa um dos Biomas mais diversos do Planeta. No entanto, ainda pouco se sabe sobre os processos que levaram à alta diversidade de plantas nesta região. A maior parte dos estudos na Mata Atlântica trata este Bioma de forma ampla, sem considerar os diversos tipos vegetacionais encontrados na região. Apesar de ser dominado pela Floresta Pluvial Montana, este Bioma ainda inclui outros tipos vegetacionais periféricos, tais como: as Florestas Pluviais Baixo Montanas, Florestas Pluviais de Altitude, Florestas Pluviais Ripária, Florestas Pluviais em Manchas e as Florestas Paludosas Litorâneas, popularmente conhecidas como \"caxetais\". O nome \"caxetal\" foi dado devido à predominância da espécie Tabebuia Cassinoides (Lam.) DC., a qual é popularmente conhecida como \"caxeta\". Esta formação vegetal tem distribuição restrita a áreas com solos permanentemente encharcados do norte de Santa Catarina até o norte do Espírito Santo, onde ocorre de forma naturalmente fragmentada, formando ilhas ao longo de sua extensão de ocorrência. Populações com distribuição fragmentada são modelos em potencial para estudos de genética de populações, visto que a delimitação geográfica de populações naturais é um dos maiores problemas para estudos dessa natureza. Diante desse cenário, a presente tese teve como objetivo: (1) verificar como a distribuição geográfica da espécie arbórea T. cassinoides, agregada, bem delimitada e fragmentada na paisagem, pode influenciar na estruturação da diversidade genética em nível local; (2) caracterizar o grau de variabilidade genética inter e intrapopulacional em populações naturais de T. cassinoides ao longo da Mata Atlântica; e, (3) determinar a estrutura filogeográfica de T. cassinoides. Para tanto foram analisados dados de oito marcadores de microssatélites nucleares, além do sequenciamento da região trnC-ycf6 do DNA plastidial (cpDNA). Os dados genéticos obtidos foram primeiramente utilizados para o conhecimento da diversidade genética e estruturação da população em nível local, na região de Iguape (SP). Nossos resultados sugerem que a fragmentação dessas populações é somente geográfica, devido a suas necessidades edáficas, bem como que o modo de distribuição agregada e naturalmente fragmentada não indica a subdivisão genética das mesmas. A caracterização da variabilidade genética inter e intra-populacional em populações naturais de T. cassinoides ao longo de toda sua área de distribuição, com base nos marcadores de microssatélites nucleares indicou que a espécie possui baixos níveis de diversidade genética, e que 61% dessa diversidade é encontrada dentro das populações e 39% entre elas. Além disso, estes resultados evidenciaram significativos níveis de correlação entre distância genética e distância geográfica, sugerindo assim a presença de isolamento por distância. Nossos resultados indicam ainda a região geográfica do Rio de Janeiro como centro de diversidade para T. cassinoides. Uma forte estruturação genética foi encontrada para os dados de DNA nuclear e plastidial. Os resultados da análise de cpDNA, sugerem que a espécie T. cassinoides está dividida em três grupos filogeográficos: Norte, Central e Sul. Já os resultados de DNA nuclear apenas se diferenciam dos anteriores por considerar os grupos filogeográficos Norte e Central como um único grupo. Dados de modelagem de nicho ecológico foram gerados e associados com análises demográficas e de estruturação populacional visando um melhor entendimento dos padrões filogeográficos da espécie e inferências sobre a ocorrência de possíveis alterações populacionais ocorridas nos últimos 21 mil anos (Last Glacial Maximum - LGM) e 6 mil anos (Holocene Optimum - HO). Os resultados destas análises sugerem a estabilidade do tamanho populacional e das possíveis áreas de ocorrência de T. cassinoides no LGM e no HO. Assim, aventamos a hipótese de que a quebra de fluxo gênico entre as regiões filogeográficas propostas no presente estudo sejam anteriores ao LGM. Esse padrão converge com resultados encontrados para outras espécies de comunidades vegetais periféricas e diverge daqueles encontrados para espécies do núcleo principal da Floresta Ombrófila Densa, evidenciando a importância de estudos com espécies de diferentes comunidades vegetais da Floresta Atlântica para um melhor entendimento dos processos que moldaram a evolução das espécies nesse complexo bioma / The Atlantic Forest is one of the most biodiverse biomes on the planet. Nevertheless, little is known about the processes that have engendered such highly diverse plantlife in this region. Most studies on the Atlantic Forest approach the biome from an ample scope, without considering the various vegetational types that are found therein. Though broadly termed Montane Rain Forest, this biome also contains other peripheral forms of vegetation, such as Submontane Rain Forest, Cloud Forest, Riparian Rainforest, Rainforest Patches and Coastal Swamp Forest, commonly known as \"caxetais\" (plur). The term \"caxetal\" (sing) derives from the overwhelming predominance of Tabebuia cassinoides (Lam.) DC., the \"caxeta\". This naturally fragmented vegetational formation is found in patches on permanently waterlogged soils all the way from the north of Santa Catarina state up to northern most Espírito Santo. Populations with fragmented distribution are potential models for populational genetics studies, seen as the geographical delimitation of natural populations is one of the biggest problems facing research of this kind. In the light of this, the present thesis aims to: (1) verify how the aggregated, well-delimited and fragmented geographical distribution of the tree species T. cassinoides might influence the structuring of genetic diversity on a local level; (2) ascertain the degree of inter and intra-populational genetic variability in natural T. cassinoides populations throughout the Atlantic Forest, and (3) determine the phylogeographical structure of T. cassinoides. In order to achieve this we analyzed data for eight nuclear microsatellite markers and sequencing for the trnC-ycf6 region of plastidial DNA (cpDNA). The genetic data obtained was first used to generate knowledge concerning genetic diversity and populational structuring on a local level, in the Iguape (São Paulo state) region. Our results suggest that the fragmentation of these populations is geographical only, due to their edaphic needs, and that this locally aggregated and naturally fragmented mode of distribution does not indicate genetic subdivision. The characterization of inter and intra-populational genetic variability for T. cassinoides throughout its range of distribution, based on nuclear microsatellite markers, showed that the species has low levels of genetic diversity and that 61% of this diversity is encountered within, and 39% among, the populations. Furthermore, the results evince high and significant levels of correlation between genetic and geographic distance, thus suggesting that this isolation is distance-related. Our findings also indicate that the geographical region of Rio de Janeiro is the center of T. cassinoides diversity. Considerable genetic structuring was identified from the nuclear and plastidial DNA, though with partial distinctions. Results for cpDNA analysis suggest that T. cassinoides is divided into three phylogeographical groups: North, Central and South. Nuclear DNA analysis, however, took the Central and North phylogeographical groups to be one and the same. Ecological niche modeling data were generated and associated with demographic analyses and findings on populational structuring so that we could determine the species\' phylogeographical patterns and infer the occurrence of possible populational alterations during two distinct periods: 21 thousand years ago (the Last Glacial Minimum) and over the last 6 thousand years (Holocene Optimum - HO). The results of these analyses suggest that population sizes remained stable in possible areas of occurrence during the LGM and HO. Based on these findings we suggest the hypotheses that the stemming of gene flow among the phylogeographical regions proposed by this study predates the LGM. This pattern converges with results found for other species of peripheral vegetal communities but diverges from those for species from the Dense Coastal Hydrophilic Forest nucleus. As such, our research underscores the importance of further studies with different vegetal communities that comprise the Atlantic Forest in order to foster a better understanding of the processes that shaped the evolution of species in this complex biome

An important goal of biology is to understand the key mechanisms of evolution underlying the diversity of living organisms on Earth. In that respect, the recent innovations in the field of new generation sequencing technologies (NGS) are bringing new and exciting opportunities. This thesis presents results obtained with these tools in the specific context of the study of two sister species of cold-adapted leaf beetles, Gonioctena intermedia and G. quinquepunctata. More specifically, this work is focused around four research directions: the two first explore methods of statistical inference using a spatially explicit model of coalescence, by (1) evaluating the potential of various summary statistics to discriminate phylogeographic hypotheses, and (2) investigating the dispersal abilities of a montane leaf beetle, G. quinquepunctata, using an original method that avoids using summary statistics. The third research direction focuses on the adaptation to cold conditions in this montane leaf beetle, by testing the association between genetic polymorphism across tens of thousands of genetic markers and altitude in samples collected at various elevation levels in the Vosges (France). Finally, the fourth, and last, research axis presents the discovery of mitochondrial heteroplasmy, i.e. the presence in an individual of multiple copies of the mitochondrial genome, in natural populations of G. intermedia. We illustrate, here, how NGS technologies could help identify this phenomenon, probably underestimated in animals, on a large scale. / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

The aim of this PhD study was to gain new insights into the evolutionary history of the Central African rainforests, which are among the most complex and diverse ecosystems on earth. Even today, many questions regarding the underlying dynamics and evolutionary processes shaping that remarkable diversity remain unanswered, since relatively few studies have focused on the vast tropical forests growing in the Congo Basin. Therefore, we applied various molecular approaches to study the levels of genetic diversity and patterns of differentiation within and between population of the tropical tree species Scorodophloeus zenkeri, Staudtia kamerunensis and Prioria balsamifera. In Chapter 2, we conducted a phylogeographic study on the widespread tropical tree Scorodophloeus zenkeri to assess the impact of past forest fragmentation in Central African lowland forests. By applying Bayesian clustering methods, we revealed six intraspecific genetic clusters within the species. The observed genetic discontinuities most likely result from forest fragmentation during the glacial periods of the Pleistocene. Populations in Lower Guinea appeared differentiated from those in Congolia, and both bioregions harboured distinct genetic clusters.In Chapter 3, we developed 16 highly polymorphic microsatellite primers (SSRs) for Staudtia kamerunensis, a timber species for which species-specific genetic markers were lacking. By validating the developed markers in three populations, we demonstrated their usefulness to study gene flow, population structure and spatial distribution of genetic diversity in S. kamerunensis.In Chapter 4, we applied the newly developed SSRs, two nuclear gene markers and a chloroplast marker to search for evolutionary lineages in Staudtia kamerunensis, a species with a complex taxonomical history. Our analyses reveal multiple genetic discontinuities among populations throughout Central Africa, probably resulting from ancient rainforest fragmentation during cold and dry periods in the Pliocene and/or Pleistocene. However, the clear genetic disjunction observed between northern and southern populations in Lower Guinea could correspond to a genetic break between the kamerunensis and gabonensis varieties described in Staudtia kamerunensis.In Chapter 5, we developed two new sets of microsatellite primers (SSRs); 16 primer pairs for Prioria balsamifera and 15 primer pairs for Prioria oxyphylla. Validation of the primers in two populations of each species, as well as the cross-amplification tests, demonstrated the usefulness of the SSRs to study gene flow and spatial genetic structure in African Prioria species, which is needed to prevent genetic erosion and to set up proper conservation guidelines.In Chapter 6, the 16 newly developed microsatellite loci were amplified in individuals of P. balsamifera from Gabon and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to assess the levels of genetic diversity and intraspecific differentiation. Our analyses show that the genetic diversity in P. balsamifera populations is relatively low, so efforts should be made to prevent further depletion of the gene pool. Bayesian clustering analyses revealed multiple genetic discontinuities throughout the Congo Basin, probably caused by ancient forest fragmentation. The inferred intraspecific clusters show a parapatric distribution, so they can potentially be used to determine the origin of individuals at a regional scale. Additionally, various genetic assignment methods show that the SSR dataset generated in this study can be used as a reference database for Gabon and DR Congo. The general discussion allows us to show similarities in the genetic structures of species that can be interpreted in terms of forest cover history in Central Africa. / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished