In the United States, hops (Humulus lupulus L.) are grown mainly in the Pacific Northwest (PNW). For this reason, most cultural information is based on the growing conditions of the PNW. Growing conditions in Virginia differ drastically and present unique disease and production challenges. Three studies were conducted with the intent of increasing hop cultivation knowledge for Virginia growers. For the first study, 13 cultivars of hops grown at the Virginia Tech hop yard were compared for growth, yield, and quality. Mean cone fresh weight per plant ranged from 12.00 g for Mt. Hood to 1002.87 g for Crystal in 2016 and from 97.98 g for Mt. Hood to 900.33 g for Cascade in 2017. In 2016, only Alpharoma, Cascade, Mt. Rainier, and Southern Cross had alpha acid levels, an indicator of cone quality, within the accepted range. In 2017, Alpharoma, Centennial, Mt. Rainier, and Nugget had alpha acid levels within the expected range. Three cultivars (Cascade, Crystal, and Ultra) were above the expected alpha acid range, which indicates more bittering potential for beer brewers. In a nutrient deficiency study, hop plants were grown in hydroponic solutions, and deficiencies were induced for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). After visual deficiency symptoms had been induced, leaf tissue samples were taken and analyzed for nutrient content. Images were taken at each deficiency stage. For N, incipient deficiency symptoms were observed at a mean of 3.18% dry weight in leaf tissue samples. Visual symptoms included a chlorotic appearance, undersized leaves, and red petioles. Incipient symptoms for P were observed at a mean of 0.307% dry weight in leaf tissue samples. Necrotic spots, leaf cupping, and undersized leaves were apparent with this deficiency. Incipient symptoms for K were observed at a mean of 1.21% dry weight in leaf tissue samples. Symptoms included rounded leaf tips, blue veins, and marginal scorch. In the third study, a whole leaf powdery mildew (Podosphaera macularis) assay was developed and tested using five hop cultivars, Alpharoma, Cascade, Comet, Sorachi Ace, and Tahoma. Leaves were inoculated with powdery mildew (PM) using a settling tower. This method was used to rapidly assess the resistance of cultivars. Leaves were successfully inoculated and PM colonies were allowed to grow for two weeks. Images of the PM colony development on inoculated leaves were compared using ImageJ to determine percentage of coverage. Tahoma was the only cultivar found to produce a significantly different mean percent coverage (19.5%) compared with the resistant cultivars Cascade and Comet (<1%). / Master of Science in Life Sciences / Hops (Humulus lupulus) were first grown in the United States in Massachusetts in the early 1600s. Production of this crop eventually spread throughout the Northeastern US. By the mid-1800s, commercial production spread to southern states such as Virginia. Infestation of pests, e.g., hop aphid and diseases such as downy mildew in eastern states, and prohibition on the production of alcohol caused a significant shift in hop production, which favored the Pacific Northwest (PNW). As a result, in Virginia specific knowledge of hop cultivation is now lacking. Three studies were conducted to increase our knowledge of hop cultivation for the region. For the first study, 13 cultivars grown at the Virginia Tech hop yard were compared for growth, yield, and quality. The cultivars Cascade and Alpharoma had alpha acid levels equal to or higher than expected for the 2016 and 2017 seasons. The alpha acid levels are an indicator of the hop quality from the Cascade and Alpharoma cultivars. Cascade was also a top producer of hop cones with a mean fresh weight of 989.67 g and 900.33 g in 2016 and 2017, respectively. In a nutrient deficiency study, plants were grown in Hoagland hydroponic solutions, which contain all essential nutrients needed for plant growth. This was done to provide photographic documentation to assist local growers with deficiency identification. Deficiencies were induced for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) by removing each of the specific nutrient of interest from each treatment solution. After deficiency symptoms were induced, leaf tissue samples were taken and analyzed for nutrient content. Nutrient deficiencies were documented using photographs. For N, visual symptoms included a chlorotic appearance, undersized leaves, and red petioles. Incipient symptoms for P included necrotic spots, leaf cupping, and undersized leaves. For K, leaf cupping, blue green veins, marginal scorch, and rounded leaf tips. Disease resistance of cultivars is important information for growers and can heavily influence hop yard planning. As such, in another study, an assay for powdery mildew (Podosphaera macularis) was developed that allows for rapid low cost testing of hop cultivars. The assay was tested on the following cultivars: Alpharoma, Cascade, Comet, Sorachi Ace, and Tahoma. Leaves were inoculated with powdery mildew (PM) using a settling tower. Powdery mildew colonies were allowed to grow for two weeks and were then analyzed using ImageJ software to determine percent coverage. At the end of the experiment, Tahoma had significantly greater PM coverage compared to the other cultivars, indicating that Tahoma is less resistant to the specific PM strain. / Hops (Humulus lupulus) were first grown in the United States in Massachusetts in the early 1600s. Production of this crop eventually spread throughout the Northeastern US. By the mid-1800s, commercial production spread to southern states such as Virginia. Infestation of pests, e.g., hop aphid and diseases such as downy mildew in eastern states, and prohibition on the production of alcohol caused a significant shift in hop production, which favored the Pacific Northwest (PNW). As a result, in Virginia specific knowledge of hop cultivation is now lacking. Three studies were conducted to increase our knowledge of hop cultivation for the region. For the first study, 13 cultivars grown at the Virginia Tech hop yard were compared for growth, yield, and quality. The cultivars Cascade and Alpharoma had alpha acid levels equal to or higher than expected for the 2016 and 2017 seasons. The alpha acid levels are an indicator of the hop quality from the Cascade and Alpharoma cultivars. Cascade was also a top producer of hop cones with a mean fresh weight of 989.67 g and 900.33 g in 2016 and 2017, respectively. In a nutrient deficiency study, plants were grown in Hoagland hydroponic solutions, which contain all essential nutrients needed for plant growth. This was done to provide photographic documentation to assist local growers with deficiency identification. Deficiencies were induced for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) by removing each of the specific nutrient of interest from each treatment solution. After deficiency symptoms were induced, leaf tissue samples were taken and analyzed for nutrient content. Nutrient deficiencies were documented using photographs. For N, visual symptoms included a chlorotic appearance, undersized leaves, and red petioles. Incipient symptoms for P included necrotic spots, leaf cupping, and undersized leaves. For K, leaf cupping, blue green veins, marginal scorch, and rounded leaf tips. Disease resistance of cultivars is important information for growers and can heavily influence hop yard planning. As such, in another study, an assay for powdery mildew (Podosphaera macularis) was developed that allows for rapid low cost testing of hop cultivars. The assay was tested on the following cultivars: Alpharoma, Cascade, Comet, Sorachi Ace, and Tahoma. Leaves were inoculated with powdery mildew (PM) using a settling tower. Powdery mildew colonies were allowed to grow for two weeks and were then analyzed using ImageJ software to determine percent coverage. At the end of the experiment, Tahoma had significantly greater PM coverage compared to the other cultivars, indicating that Tahoma is less resistant to the specific PM strain.

At present, the global population is increasing, while soil and fresh water resources for crop production are declining. It is important to adopt sustainable practices to optimise the use of limited natural resources without compromising the environment, and to enhance continuous production in the long term. The rapid growth of UK strawberry industry has been achieved through the precision use of varieties, nutrients and polythene tunnels. This intensive production has caused significant environmental impacts especially Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions from the production. Strawberry powdery mildew (Podosphaera aphanis) is a major fungal disease affecting strawberry production worldwide particularly in polythene tunnels. The disease can result in yield losses of up to 70% of the crop. A ruleQbased system was used in the field trials to predict high risk days of P. aphanis development, taking into account the optimal environmental conditions conducive to conidial germination and disease development. The results (Chapter 3) showed that the use of this prediction system achieved satisfactory control of P. aphanis in commercial strawberry production, with reduced fungicide applications compared with commercial spray programme. The results were consistent in two consecutive years and on different varieties. In addition, it was suggested that the use of the prediction system may also lead to lower GHG emissions associated with fewer fungicide applications, thereby benefit strawberry growers both environmentally and economically. Results from 2014 & 2015 silicon fertigation trials showed that the use of a silicon nutrient via the fertigation system reduced the strawberry susceptibility to P. aphanis and twoQspotted spider mites (Tetranychus urticae Koch) in two consecutive years on different varieties (Chapter 4). In both years, crops received the silicon nutrient only without fungicides had both lower rate of epidemic (r) and lower value of Area Under the Disease Progress Curve (AUDPC) (r = 0.0036, AUDPC = 475 in 2014; r = 0.001, AUDPC = 267 in 2015) compared with the untreated control (r = 0.0042, AUDPC = 662 in 2014; r = 0.0011, AUDPC = 281 in 2015). Silicon also delayed the epidemic buildQup in the silicon nutrient only treatment for approximately two weeks compared with the untreated control. Crops from the silicon nutrient plus fungicides treatment had lower susceptibility (r = 0.0012 in 2014; r = 0.0004 in 2015) than those from the fungicides only treatment (r = 0.0017 in 2014; r = 0.0005 in 2015) suggesting that the silicon nutrient may also enhance fungicides performance in reducing the epidemic buildQup when used together. Moreover, the presence of T. urticae on strawberry leaves was significantly lower (P < 0.001) in plants treated with the silicon nutrient than those without. In addition, initial results suggested that silicon may play a positive role in raising °Brix of strawberry leaf petiole, improving pollen viability, and influencing the length of flower receptacle and stamens. Maltmas Farm has a wide range of semiQnatural habitats that provide food and nesting resources for wild pollinators. Hoverflies, bumblebees and solitary bees were found to be the main wild pollinators that pollinate commercial strawberries at Maltmas Farm (Chapter 5). The number of pollinators in tunnels or open fields significantly correlated with the abundance of strawberry flowers (P < 0.05). Pollinator presence also differed between groups throughout the day and over the seasons. Hoverflies appeared early in the day and were abundant in summer months; bumblebees and solitary bees were present most of the day and throughout the season, whereas honeybees were only active in sunny days. Temperatures, relative humidity and cloud coverage also affected pollinator presence. In addition, pollinator activity was not significantly (P > 0.05) affected by the application of the silicon nutrient via the fertigation system. The integrated use of the prediction system (to reduce fungicide applications and subsequent GHG emissions), the silicon nutrient (to reduce crop susceptibility to P. aphanis and T. urticae), and sustainable farmland management (to encourage the presence of wild pollinators) could help strawberry growers to achieve a more sustainable production.

Le blanc du fraisier (Podosphaera aphanis) est particulièrement nuisible chez les variétés à jour neutre puisque son cycle est favorisé par le climat présent en août et septembre, occasionnant ainsi, un usage abondant de fongicides. Dans une optique de lutte écologique, le silicium (Si) se démarque par ses propriétés prophylactiques chez plusieurs végétaux. Bien que le Si semble stimuler la résistance des fraisiers (Fragaria × ananassa Duch) au P. aphanis en culture hors-sol, il reste que son efficacité dans un contexte de production commerciale au champ demeure ambigüe. Dans ce projet, l'objectif était d'évaluer l'effet d'amendements en Si sur l'intensité du blanc du fraisier et sur les rendements dans un système de production en champ. Le contenu en Si dans les feuilles, l'intensité de la maladie et les rendements étaient les variables étudiées. Deux types d'amendements ont été évalués : le silicate de potassium, une formulation soluble appliquée en fertigation deux fois par semaine en 2015, et trois doses de silicate de calcium (wollastonite), une forme solide incorporée à la plantation en 2016. De plus, chaque traitement en Si a été mis en interaction avec trois cultivars. En 2015, la silice soluble n'a donné aucune augmentation significative du contenu en Si chez tous les cultivars testés, résultat concordant avec les données de rendements qui se sont avérées similaires chez les témoins et les plants traités. Également, en 2016, pour chacun des cultivars, les contenus en Si dans les plants n'ont pas été influencés par les trois doses de silicate de calcium. Par conséquent, aucun effet n'a été observé tant au niveau des rendements que de la répression du blanc. Nos résultats illustrent bien l'intérêt de valider la disponibilité d'acide silicique lors d'applications de fertilisants à base de Si expliquant ainsi les résultats contradictoires, parfois véhiculés, quant aux bénéfices du Si en agriculture.

Embora não seja reconhecido como um nutriente essencial, o silício (Si) reduz a severidade de oídios em diversas espécies vegetais quando acumulado na parte aérea. Contudo, apesar deste efeito benéfico ser amplamente relatado na literatura, ainda pouco se sabe dos mecanismos envolvidos. Este estudo avaliou o efeito das aplicações foliar e radicular de silicato de potássio, uma importante fonte de Si solúvel, na severidade de oídio e na indução de mecanismos de defesa pós-infecção em meloeiro. Os efeitos na doença foram avaliados em plantas inoculadas artificialmente ou naturalmente mantidas em casa de vegetação através da mensuração da dinâmica da epidemia e de seus componentes. Os resultados indicaram que tanto aplicações foliares como radiculares de silicato de potássio reduziram a área abaixo da curva de progresso da doença em 65% e 73%, respectivamente, comparadas ao tratamento controle sem aplicação. Tal redução foi resultado da alteração dos seguintes componentes epidemiológicos: eficiência de infecção, taxa de expansão da colônia, área da colônia, produção de conídios por área colonizada e taxa de progresso da epidemia. Contudo, a aplicação radicular foi mais eficiente que a foliar em atrasar o início da epidemia e em reduzir todos os componentes epidemiológicos, exceto a eficiência de infecção. A maior eficiência do silicato de potássio quando aplicado via raiz decorreu da maior concentração foliar do Si, a qual induziu uma antecipação (efeito priming) e um aumento da intensidade de expressão de mecanismos de defesa, fenômenos que não foram detectados no tratamento foliar. A aplicação radicular resultou na alteração de enzimas envolvidas na produção e catabolismo de espécies reativas de oxigênio, onde foi verificado aumento na atividade das enzimas superóxido dismutases e redução na atividade das enzimas catalases, principalmente nas primeiras 96 horas após a inoculação. O efeito priming também foi observado para as enzimas peroxidases, 1,3(4)-glucanases e quitinases e para o acúmulo de compostos fenólicos. Neste tratamento também ocorreu aumento na concentração de lignina em resposta à inoculação, contudo a concentração de malondialdeído foi reduzida, indicando que o Si aplicado nesta forma aliviou o estresse oxidativo sobre os lipídeos das membranas celulares da planta. Por outro lado, quando o silicato de potássio foi aplicado via foliar apenas a deposição de lignina aumentou comparado ao tratamento controle. Assim, depreende-se que os mecanismos de atuação do Si no controle da doença quando aplicado nesta forma, são distintos e envolvem, segundo a literatura, a formação de uma barreira físicoquímica sobre a cutícula resultado da polimerização do silicato de potássio. Tomados em conjunto, os resultados deste estudo evidenciaram que o Si tem papel ativo na modulação do sistema de defesa da planta, mas que sua efetividade depende de sua presença na forma solúvel no interior da planta, obtido por meio de sua absorção via raiz. Não obstante, os efeitos do silicato de potássio aqui relatados permitem concluir que a incorporação do produto a um sistema de manejo integrado, principalmente se fornecido via sistema radicular, terá efeitos positivos tanto na redução da epidemia de oídio como no meio ambiente, neste caso em função da redução no uso de fungicidas. / Silicon (Si) is not considered an essential nutrient of plants, but when it accumulates in the shoots it reduces powdery mildew severity on several species. However, despite this beneficial effect being widely reported in the literature, the mechanisms involved are still little understood. In this study, the effects of both foliar and root applications of potassium silicate, an important soluble source of Si, on the severity of powdery mildew and on the induction of postinfection defense mechanisms of melon were evaluated. Treatment effects were assessed by measuring the epidemics dynamic and its components in both artificially and naturally inoculated plants kept in the greenhouse. Results showed that the area under the disease progress curve was reduced by 65% and 73%, respectively by foliar and root application of potassium silicate, compared to control plants that were not supplied with potassium silicate. This effect accrued from the reduction of the infection efficiency, colony expansion rate, colony area, conidia production per colonized area and the epidemic progress rate. However, root application was more effective than foliar application on both delaying the onset of the epidemic and reducing most epidemic components, except for the infection efficiency. The greater efficiency of potassium silicate in controlling the disease when supplied via roots by irrigation correlated with higher foliar concentrations of Si which induced both a priming effect and increased expression of key defense responses. These phenomena, however, were not observed when potassium silicate was sprayed on leaves. Root supply of Si altered the activity of enzymes involved in the production and catabolism of reactive oxygen species, resulting in the increased activity of superoxide dismutase and reduced activity of catalases mainly in the first 96 hours after inoculation. Root application also primed the activity of peroxidases, 1,3(4)-glucanases, chitinases and the accumulation of phenolic compounds. Lignin concentration also increased in response to inoculation while the concentration of malondialdeide reduced indicating that Si decreased the oxidation of lipids of the plant cell membranes. In contrast, when Si was sprayed on the leaves, only an increase in lignin deposition was observed compared to the control treatment. Thus, it appears that the mechanisms of powdery mildew control in this case are distinct and, according to literature data, could include the formation of a physical-chemical barrier on the cuticle as the result of potassium silicate polymerization. Taken together, the results showed that Si plays an active role in modulating the host defense system, but only when present in the soluble form inside the plant which can be achieved by root uptake. Nevertheless, the effects of potassium silicate reported here allowed concluding that the inclusion of this compound in an integrated management system, mainly if supplied via roots, will render positive effects both on reducing the disease in melon plants and on the environment, in this case through reducing the use of fungicides.

Embora não seja reconhecido como um nutriente essencial, o silício (Si) reduz a severidade de oídios em diversas espécies vegetais quando acumulado na parte aérea. Contudo, apesar deste efeito benéfico ser amplamente relatado na literatura, ainda pouco se sabe dos mecanismos envolvidos. Este estudo avaliou o efeito das aplicações foliar e radicular de silicato de potássio, uma importante fonte de Si solúvel, na severidade de oídio e na indução de mecanismos de defesa pós-infecção em meloeiro. Os efeitos na doença foram avaliados em plantas inoculadas artificialmente ou naturalmente mantidas em casa de vegetação através da mensuração da dinâmica da epidemia e de seus componentes. Os resultados indicaram que tanto aplicações foliares como radiculares de silicato de potássio reduziram a área abaixo da curva de progresso da doença em 65% e 73%, respectivamente, comparadas ao tratamento controle sem aplicação. Tal redução foi resultado da alteração dos seguintes componentes epidemiológicos: eficiência de infecção, taxa de expansão da colônia, área da colônia, produção de conídios por área colonizada e taxa de progresso da epidemia. Contudo, a aplicação radicular foi mais eficiente que a foliar em atrasar o início da epidemia e em reduzir todos os componentes epidemiológicos, exceto a eficiência de infecção. A maior eficiência do silicato de potássio quando aplicado via raiz decorreu da maior concentração foliar do Si, a qual induziu uma antecipação (efeito priming) e um aumento da intensidade de expressão de mecanismos de defesa, fenômenos que não foram detectados no tratamento foliar. A aplicação radicular resultou na alteração de enzimas envolvidas na produção e catabolismo de espécies reativas de oxigênio, onde foi verificado aumento na atividade das enzimas superóxido dismutases e redução na atividade das enzimas catalases, principalmente nas primeiras 96 horas após a inoculação. O efeito priming também foi observado para as enzimas peroxidases, 1,3(4)-glucanases e quitinases e para o acúmulo de compostos fenólicos. Neste tratamento também ocorreu aumento na concentração de lignina em resposta à inoculação, contudo a concentração de malondialdeído foi reduzida, indicando que o Si aplicado nesta forma aliviou o estresse oxidativo sobre os lipídeos das membranas celulares da planta. Por outro lado, quando o silicato de potássio foi aplicado via foliar apenas a deposição de lignina aumentou comparado ao tratamento controle. Assim, depreende-se que os mecanismos de atuação do Si no controle da doença quando aplicado nesta forma, são distintos e envolvem, segundo a literatura, a formação de uma barreira físicoquímica sobre a cutícula resultado da polimerização do silicato de potássio. Tomados em conjunto, os resultados deste estudo evidenciaram que o Si tem papel ativo na modulação do sistema de defesa da planta, mas que sua efetividade depende de sua presença na forma solúvel no interior da planta, obtido por meio de sua absorção via raiz. Não obstante, os efeitos do silicato de potássio aqui relatados permitem concluir que a incorporação do produto a um sistema de manejo integrado, principalmente se fornecido via sistema radicular, terá efeitos positivos tanto na redução da epidemia de oídio como no meio ambiente, neste caso em função da redução no uso de fungicidas. / Silicon (Si) is not considered an essential nutrient of plants, but when it accumulates in the shoots it reduces powdery mildew severity on several species. However, despite this beneficial effect being widely reported in the literature, the mechanisms involved are still little understood. In this study, the effects of both foliar and root applications of potassium silicate, an important soluble source of Si, on the severity of powdery mildew and on the induction of postinfection defense mechanisms of melon were evaluated. Treatment effects were assessed by measuring the epidemics dynamic and its components in both artificially and naturally inoculated plants kept in the greenhouse. Results showed that the area under the disease progress curve was reduced by 65% and 73%, respectively by foliar and root application of potassium silicate, compared to control plants that were not supplied with potassium silicate. This effect accrued from the reduction of the infection efficiency, colony expansion rate, colony area, conidia production per colonized area and the epidemic progress rate. However, root application was more effective than foliar application on both delaying the onset of the epidemic and reducing most epidemic components, except for the infection efficiency. The greater efficiency of potassium silicate in controlling the disease when supplied via roots by irrigation correlated with higher foliar concentrations of Si which induced both a priming effect and increased expression of key defense responses. These phenomena, however, were not observed when potassium silicate was sprayed on leaves. Root supply of Si altered the activity of enzymes involved in the production and catabolism of reactive oxygen species, resulting in the increased activity of superoxide dismutase and reduced activity of catalases mainly in the first 96 hours after inoculation. Root application also primed the activity of peroxidases, 1,3(4)-glucanases, chitinases and the accumulation of phenolic compounds. Lignin concentration also increased in response to inoculation while the concentration of malondialdeide reduced indicating that Si decreased the oxidation of lipids of the plant cell membranes. In contrast, when Si was sprayed on the leaves, only an increase in lignin deposition was observed compared to the control treatment. Thus, it appears that the mechanisms of powdery mildew control in this case are distinct and, according to literature data, could include the formation of a physical-chemical barrier on the cuticle as the result of potassium silicate polymerization. Taken together, the results showed that Si plays an active role in modulating the host defense system, but only when present in the soluble form inside the plant which can be achieved by root uptake. Nevertheless, the effects of potassium silicate reported here allowed concluding that the inclusion of this compound in an integrated management system, mainly if supplied via roots, will render positive effects both on reducing the disease in melon plants and on the environment, in this case through reducing the use of fungicides.

Plants can interact with many different organisms on many trophic levels in their life. In this thesis I investigated how three biotic inertactions, powdery mildew infection, caused by Podosphaera ferruginea, predispersal seed predation by Dusky Large Blue (Phengaris nausithous) and Scarce Large Blue (P. teleius) and deer grazing affect life cycle and population biology of the Great Burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis L.). I also analysed their preferences of environmental conditions. Most of studied plant populations growth rates (λ) were lower than 1 and population decreased, but quite surprisingly for more populations vegetative reproduction was more important than reproduction by seeds. All intraction mentioned above affects more generative reproduction, and thus their influence on Great Burnet population dynamics is low, even with modelled maximal possible effect. Environment conditions analysis showed that powdery mildew occurs on sites with more flowering individuals, where spreading is very easy, butterflies preferred high, well noticeable flower heads grown high above other vegetation and host ant presence. For host ants' presence model locality was only significant variable.

The use of biological control agents (BCAs) in the past has shown limited success as its application has often been done incorrectly, and in addition, management practices are rarely altered to incorporate BCAs. Criteria for the correct application of BCAs have been devised as part of the research, and companies selling these products may use the said criteria. Such application will ensure the correct BCAs are used and, more specifically, used under the correct conditions. The powdery mildew (PM) fungus is often seen to develop resistance to synthetic fungicides and, therefore, alternative control measures are required. BCAs as an alternative pose less risk to the environment, workers and the consumer. A pre-trial has been conducted with a range of BCAs to see if they can control powdery mildew (PM) in a greenhouse environment on hydroponically grown cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) plants using the variety Baccara that has only a moderate tolerance to PM. The BCAs have been compared to the control (synthetic fungicide: Bravo). Comparative work includes Coyier's model, which has been modified and adapted for these trials to determine the percentage of leaf area covered by the PM infection. Furthermore, the number of fruit harvested per treatment, kilogram yield, total mass of yield and average fruit mass is also used to determine the efficacy of the BCAs as these factors have economic significance to commercial growers. The pre-trial showed promise until the fertigation computer failed, resulting in a nutrient shortage and imbalance, confirming that BCAs alone cannot control PM. Synthetic fungicides were applied until control of PM and plant nutrition was regained. BCAs were re-introduced and used until the end of crop production. The confirmation from the pre-trial has led to the inclusion of silicon in conjunction with the BCAs in the two subsequent trials (Trials 1 & 2). Silicon was applied with the BCAs as a foliar spray on a weekly basis. In trials 1 and 2, the cucumber variety, Palladium, with a high genetic tolerance to PM is used, as this variety is suited to form part of the holistic approach used for trials 1 and 2. Trial 1 showed that treatment A, containing Streptomyces griseovirdis and Streptomyces aureofaciens, had the highest yield. Both of these are bacterial BCAs and demonstrated their adaptability to varied climatic conditions, notably when low humidity was experienced. In treatment B, Trichoderma harzianum strains, Rifai and Uppington, show the slowest rate of PM development. In trials 1 and 2, the best actual PM control was obtained by two fungal based BCAs (Trial 1, treatment C was Ampelomyces quisqualis) and (Trial 2, treatment B was Trichoderma harzianum strains, Rifai and Uppington), showing that fungal BCAs have a place for this application, but the growth-enhancing properties of bacterial based BCAs make economic sense and would make them attractive to growers. Treatment A (Streptomyces spp.) had the most number of fruit for the entire growing period and the best overall yield (kg yield) again. Two of the BCA / silicon treatments have marginally better PM control compared to that of the control (E) treatment, although not statistically significant. Treatment E (control) has the highest average fruit mass in this instance but does not have the highest yield (kg yield) when compared to treatments A and B, possibly due to the growth-enhancing properties of most of these BCAs. Therefore, most of these BCA treatments give fairly inconsistent results that vary possibly according to season, humidity and temperature, making it difficult to predict their efficacy. Using combinations or weekly alternations of these BCAs with extremes of climatic adaptation will probably be the most reliable method of obtaining consistent results. Bacterial BCAs are shown to have lower humidity requirements and produce the most consistent results in terms of fruit number, yield and fruit mass and a combination of bacterial and fungal based BCAs would possibly be the best as this would control PM and yet still have the growth enhancing properties from the bacterial based BCAs. From the research, it can be said that some BCAs in trials 1 and 2 produce results similar to that of the control in terms of percentage leaf area covered by PM and some are shown to have improved yields. Results produced from certain BCA treatments are thus equal to the control; yet provide an environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic fungicides. Silicon is listed as a beneficial element rather than an essential element; however, literature claims it to be highly effective in treating PM in cucurbits. Results from trials 1 and 2 show that control of PM is possible in most cases, when a holistic approach is used. This approach includes a cucumber variety with a high PM tolerance, optimum nutrition, cultural practices and silicon in combination with the BCAs. A complete change of management practices is necessary to implement such a BCA program. / Agriculture, Animal Health & Human Ecology / M. Tech. (Nature Conservation)

The use of biological control agents (BCAs) in the past has shown limited success as its application has often been done incorrectly, and in addition, management practices are rarely altered to incorporate BCAs. Criteria for the correct application of BCAs have been devised as part of the research, and companies selling these products may use the said criteria. Such application will ensure the correct BCAs are used and, more specifically, used under the correct conditions. The powdery mildew (PM) fungus is often seen to develop resistance to synthetic fungicides and, therefore, alternative control measures are required. BCAs as an alternative pose less risk to the environment, workers and the consumer. A pre-trial has been conducted with a range of BCAs to see if they can control powdery mildew (PM) in a greenhouse environment on hydroponically grown cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) plants using the variety Baccara that has only a moderate tolerance to PM. The BCAs have been compared to the control (synthetic fungicide: Bravo). Comparative work includes Coyier's model, which has been modified and adapted for these trials to determine the percentage of leaf area covered by the PM infection. Furthermore, the number of fruit harvested per treatment, kilogram yield, total mass of yield and average fruit mass is also used to determine the efficacy of the BCAs as these factors have economic significance to commercial growers. The pre-trial showed promise until the fertigation computer failed, resulting in a nutrient shortage and imbalance, confirming that BCAs alone cannot control PM. Synthetic fungicides were applied until control of PM and plant nutrition was regained. BCAs were re-introduced and used until the end of crop production. The confirmation from the pre-trial has led to the inclusion of silicon in conjunction with the BCAs in the two subsequent trials (Trials 1 & 2). Silicon was applied with the BCAs as a foliar spray on a weekly basis. In trials 1 and 2, the cucumber variety, Palladium, with a high genetic tolerance to PM is used, as this variety is suited to form part of the holistic approach used for trials 1 and 2. Trial 1 showed that treatment A, containing Streptomyces griseovirdis and Streptomyces aureofaciens, had the highest yield. Both of these are bacterial BCAs and demonstrated their adaptability to varied climatic conditions, notably when low humidity was experienced. In treatment B, Trichoderma harzianum strains, Rifai and Uppington, show the slowest rate of PM development. In trials 1 and 2, the best actual PM control was obtained by two fungal based BCAs (Trial 1, treatment C was Ampelomyces quisqualis) and (Trial 2, treatment B was Trichoderma harzianum strains, Rifai and Uppington), showing that fungal BCAs have a place for this application, but the growth-enhancing properties of bacterial based BCAs make economic sense and would make them attractive to growers. Treatment A (Streptomyces spp.) had the most number of fruit for the entire growing period and the best overall yield (kg yield) again. Two of the BCA / silicon treatments have marginally better PM control compared to that of the control (E) treatment, although not statistically significant. Treatment E (control) has the highest average fruit mass in this instance but does not have the highest yield (kg yield) when compared to treatments A and B, possibly due to the growth-enhancing properties of most of these BCAs. Therefore, most of these BCA treatments give fairly inconsistent results that vary possibly according to season, humidity and temperature, making it difficult to predict their efficacy. Using combinations or weekly alternations of these BCAs with extremes of climatic adaptation will probably be the most reliable method of obtaining consistent results. Bacterial BCAs are shown to have lower humidity requirements and produce the most consistent results in terms of fruit number, yield and fruit mass and a combination of bacterial and fungal based BCAs would possibly be the best as this would control PM and yet still have the growth enhancing properties from the bacterial based BCAs. From the research, it can be said that some BCAs in trials 1 and 2 produce results similar to that of the control in terms of percentage leaf area covered by PM and some are shown to have improved yields. Results produced from certain BCA treatments are thus equal to the control; yet provide an environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic fungicides. Silicon is listed as a beneficial element rather than an essential element; however, literature claims it to be highly effective in treating PM in cucurbits. Results from trials 1 and 2 show that control of PM is possible in most cases, when a holistic approach is used. This approach includes a cucumber variety with a high PM tolerance, optimum nutrition, cultural practices and silicon in combination with the BCAs. A complete change of management practices is necessary to implement such a BCA program. / Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology / M. Tech. (Nature Conservation)