Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / This thesis is about HELLP Syndrome (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelet count in pregnancy): a devastating maternal hypertensive complication that results in multi-system changes that can rapidly deteriorate into organ failure and death. Despite rapid advancesin medical technology and medical science this disease continues to take the lives of women and their infants. The only effective intervention for this disorder is immediate termination irrespective of the gestational stage of the pregnancy. The primary objective of this thesis was to explore the subjective experiences and meaningmaking processes of women in and through their high-risk pregnancies. This objective crystallised into the following aims: to facilitate and listen to the voices of women who were HELLP Syndrome survivors; to explore the reported bodily, psychological and emotional experiences of HELLP Syndrome survivors; to understand the role medical intervention and biomedical discourses play in these women’s experiences and finally to explore the subjective experiences of HELLP Syndrome in the context of traditionallyheld notions of motherhood. The study was couched in a feminist poststructuralist epistemology. A material-discursive framework which comprised phenomenological and poststructuralist theorising was usedin an attempt to understand both the lived experiences as well as the discursively constructed nature of those subjective experiences. Thus the analysis encompassed both a broadly phenomenological framework to understand the lived experiences of HELLP Syndrome, and a discourse analysis to explore the meaning-making processes of participants in relation to larger social discourses, in particular the dominant biomedical and motherhood discourses. A qualitative approach using in depth semi-structured interviews was utilisedto gather data. Eleven participants from very diverse backgrounds consented to be part of thisstudy. The findings of the study highlighted the immense trauma, difficulties and challenges participants faced in these high-risk situations. What was evident from the analysis was that their experiences were so diverse and werecompletely shaped by the severity of the disorder and the gestational stage of the pregnancy. Some women ended up in the Intensive Care Units (ICU) and had near-death experiences, some had very premature babies, while some of the participants lost their babies during the process. With regards to the emotional, psychological and corporeal aspects of the disorder,participants described their situations as a disaster, painful and difficult. Due to the rapid deterioration of symptoms, they described the tempo of these events as a whirlwind in which they felt they had no control. Emotions ranged from shock, total disbelief and surprise to anger, helplessness and powerlessness. Lacking knowledge and access to appropriate information further compounded the situation for participants. Theparticipants who had premature babies found the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit experience (NICU) extremely challenging and stressful. A discourse analysis revealed that women’s talk was shaped by the disciplinary frameworks oftechnocratic medicine and patriarchal notions of gender. Participants’ discourses about their encounters inthe medical context werelocated in, and shaped by, the structure of health care in our country. In this regard binaries (like private versus public health care, women versus men and nurses versus doctors) were evident. Furthermore their hospital stay reflected their experiences in the Intensive Care (ICU) and the Neonatal Intensive Care Units (NICU) both of which are highly technologically orientated and managed. Biomedical discourses that filtered through the participants’ talk were: medicine as indisputable truth;mechanistic model of the body as machine; medical doctors as gods and the foetus as ‘super subject’. Discourses of risk were inevitably taken up as participants tried to make sense of both their current pregnancies and the potential ones to follow. The passage into motherhood for these participants was dependent on whether they had live babies or not. For those who had live babies it was a difficult time as they had to contend with their own recovery as well as the prematurity of their infants. The NICU experience was described as tiring, trying and cumbersome. For mothers who lost their babies it was a time of profound sadness and loss coupled to the notion that motherhood itself was lost. This loss of their children symbolised broken dreams, severed connections and a powerful taboo. In addition, discourses in which motherhood was naturalised and normalised saturated their talk and framed their experience in a narrative of deficit and failure. The ideologies of mother blame and the ‘all responsible’ mother were pervasive in their discussions. In conclusion, this high-risk situation represented a time of tremendous uncertainty and unpredictability for all participants and was powerfully shaped by dominant discourses about motherhood and the biomedical discursive and institutional framework in which participants were subjugated. The study thus highlights how the HELLP syndrome experience illuminates the erasure of women’s subjectivities while the foetus/infants’ life takes precedence. This has significant implications for scholarship in general and feminist scholarship in particular and highlights the need for this type of engagement in an area that has remained on the periphery of feminist research. / South Africa

A clonagem por transferência de núcleo de células somáticas (SCNT) em bovinos é uma biotécnica ineficiente, porém é uma ferramenta muito importante para pesquisas em biologia do desenvolvimento. Estudos prévios em nosso laboratório identificaram três fenótipos gestacionais de clones bovinos produzidos por SCNT: (1) gestação normal (CNG) - presença do embrião (EP), vesícula embrionária (VE) e corpo lúteo ativo (CL); (2) gestação anembrionada (CAG) - presença da VE e CL ativo e ausência de EP; (3) receptoras com CL ativo persistente sem a presença de EP e VE (CPCL). Vacas doadoras de embriões foram sincronizadas pelo protocolo de super-ovulação (SOV) e inseminadas artificialmente, os embriões obtidos após sete dias da ovulação foram transferidos para receptoras que ao ficarem gestantes formaram o grupo controle (GC). O objetivou do estudo foi investigar as características morfovasculares do útero nestes quatro fenótipos gestacionais. A hipótese central foi que as características morfovasculares do útero são moduladas diferentemente nos três fenótipos gestacionais de embriões clonados por SCNT e gestação controle. Vacas Nelores foram sincronizadas e utilizadas como receptoras de embriões. Coletas de sangue para análise de progesterona e exames ultrassonográficos nos modos B e Doppler para análise da morfologia e vascularização uterina foram realizados a cada dois dias a partir do dia 6 até o dia 30 pós-ovulação. Entre os dias 31 e 36, as receptoras foram abatidas e o útero coletado para análises in situ. A simetria entre cornos, o grau de desenvolvimento de carúnculas e da VE foram mensurados e amostras endometriais coletadas para quantificação relativa do fator de crescimento endotelial vascular (VEGF) e seu receptor do tipo 2 (VEGF-R2) por western-blotting. No total foram realizadas 212 sincronizações do ciclo estral, das quais 79 receptoras receberam embriões de clones por SCNT e 49 receberam embriões produzidos in vivo. Aos 25 dias pós-ovulação as taxas de concepção por grupo foram: CNG = 15,1% (12/79), CAG = 2,5% (2/79), CPCL = 8,8% (7/79) e CG = 24,4% (10/49). Duas receptoras da raça Tabapuã (Bos taurus indicus) do fenótipo do grupo CAG provindas de outro experimento foram incluídas nas análises. Algumas receptoras foram excluídas do experimento devido a perdas gestacionais ocorridas antes do momento do abate, restando para as análises sete receptoras no grupo CNG, três no CAG, quatro no CPCL e nove no CG. Somente o grupo CG apresentou diferença de perfusão vascular entre os cornos uterinos ipso e contralateral (P<0,05). Em relação ao corno ipsolateral, os grupos CG e CNG apresentaram maior perfusão vascular em relação ao grupo CPCL do dia 24 ao 30 (P<0,05). Porém, com a média dos escores da perfusão vascular endometrial de ambos os cornos, o grupo CNG apresentou maiores valores em relação aos grupos CAG e CPCL nos dias 24 e 30. Os índices de resistência vascular (RI) nas artérias uterinas confirmaram os dados subjetivos de diferença de perfusão vascular entre cornos, o corno ipsolateral do grupo CG apresentou menor RI em relação ao contralateral nos dias 22, 24, 28 e 30 (P<0,05) e os grupos CNG e CPCL não apresentaram diferença entre cornos (P>0,05). Entre os grupos, o RI no CG e CAG foi menor que no CPCL no dia 30 (P<0,05). A concentração de progesterona (P4) sanguínea foi menor no grupo CPCL em relação aos grupos CG e CNG nos dias 18 e 26 (P<0,05). A P4 atingiu valores próximos de 8 ng/ml a partir do dia 22 nos grupos CG e CNG, sendo que no grupo CPCL os valores foram inferiores à 6 ng/ml a partir do dia 14. As análises in situ revelaram maior frequência de assimetria de cornos uterinos no grupo CG em relação aos grupos CNG, CAG e CPCL; o grupo CNG obteve maior frequência de ocorrência de carúnculas e VE desenvolvidas nos dois cornos uterinos em relação aos grupos CAG e CPCL (P<0,05), não diferindo do grupo CG (P>0,05). O comprimento dos embriões do grupo CNG foi maior que dos embriões do grupo CG (P<0,05), entre os dias 28 e 34. Não foi detectada diferença de abundância relativa das proteínas VEGF e VEGF-R2 entre os quatro grupos estudados, porém quando os grupos de gestações normais (CG e CNG) foram comparados com os grupos de gestações alteradas (CAG e CPCL) foi detectada maior abundância relativa para o fragmento de 75 kDa da proteína do VEGF-R2 no grupo de gestações alteradas. A hipótese central do estudo, que afirma que as alterações morfovasculares do útero gestante durante o primeiro mês são moduladas em diferentes graus de forma dependente à qualidade de desenvolvimento do concepto foi confirmada. Por fim, este estudo proporcionou um melhor entendimento da fisiologia endócrina, morfológica e vascular das gestações normais e alteradas de embriões clonados por SCNT durante o primeiro mês gestacional, fornecendo base para novos estudos sobre o desenvolvimento e manutenção da gestação inicial em bovinos. / Cloning by nuclear transfer of somatic cells (SCNT) in cattle is an inefficient biotechnique. However, it is a very important tool for research in developmental biology. Previous studies from our lab have identified three gestational phenotypes of bovine clones: (1) Clone normal gestation (CNG) - presence of embryo (EP = embryo proper), embryonic vesicle (EV) and corpus luteum (CL); (2) Clone anembryonic gestation (CAG) - presence of EV and CL and no EP; (3) Recipient presenting only a persistent CL (CPCL). Embryo donor cows were synchronized by superovulation protocol (SOV) and artificially inseminated, embryos obtained after seven days of ovulation were transferred to the control group (CG). This study aimed to investigate whether modulation of the morphological and vascular abnormalities of the uterus by the presence of the cloned conceptus is different between the three gestational clone phenotypes and control. The central hypothesis was that the morphovascular characteristics of the uterus are modulated differently in the three gestational phenotypes of embryos cloned by SCNT and control gestation. Nellore cows were synchronized and used as embryo recipients. Blood collections for progesterone analysis and ultrasound examinations in B and Doppler modes for analysis of uterine morphology and vascularization were performed every two days from day 6 to day 30. Between 31-36 days, the recipients were slaughtered and the uteri were collected for in situ analyzes. The symmetry between horns, the degree of caruncle and EV development were measured and endometrial samples were collected for relative quantification of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptor type 2 (VEGF-R2) by western blotting. A total of 212 estrous cycle synchronizations were performed, 79 recipients cows received clone embryos by SCNT and 49 embryos produced in vivo. At 25 days after ovulation the conception rates by group were: CNG = 15.1% (12/79), CAG = 2.5% (2/79), CPCL = 8.8% (7/79), and CG = 24.4% (10/49). Two pregnant cows Tabapuã (Bos taurus indicus) of CAG phenotype from another experiment were included in the analyzes. Some recipients were excluded from the experiment due to gestational losses occurring before the time of slaughter, remaining seven recipients in CNG group, three in CAG, four in CPCL and nine in CG. Only the CG group had a difference in vascular perfusion between the ipso and contralateral uterine horns (P<0.05). In relation to the ipsilateral horn, the CG and CNG groups presented higher vascular perfusion compared to the CPCL group from day 24 to 30 (P<0.05). However, with the average of endometrial vascular perfusion scores of both uterine horns, the CNG group presented higher values in compared to the CAG and CPCL groups on days 24 and 30. The vascular resistance index (RI) of the uterine arteries confirmed the subjective data of vascular perfusion between horns. The ipsilateral horn of the CG group presented lower RI in compared to the contralateral on days 22, 24, 28 and 30 (P<0, 05) and the CNG and CPCL groups did not show this difference between horns (P>0.05). Among groups, the RI in CG and CAG was lower than in the CPCL on day 30 (P<0.05). The blood progesterone (P4) concentration was lower in the CPCL group than in the CG and CNG groups on days 18 and 26 (P<0.05). P4 reached values close to 8 ng/ml after day 22 in the CG and CNG groups, and in the CPCL group the values were lower than 6 ng/ml after day 14. In situ analyzes revealed a higher frequency of uterine horn asymmetry in the CG group compared to the CNG, CAG and CPCL groups; the CNG group had a higher frequency of caruncles and EV development in the two uterine horns compared to the CAG and CPCL groups (P<0.05), not differing from the CG group (P>0.05). The length of the embryos of the CNG group was higher than that of the embryos of the CG group (P<0.05) between days 28 to 34. No difference was detected in the relative abundance of VEGF and VEGF-R2 proteins among the four groups, but when the normal gestation groups (CG and CNG) were compared with the altered pregnancies groups (CAG and CPCL) a greater relative abundance was detected for the 75 kDa fragment of the VEGF-R2 protein in the group of altered pregnancies. The central hypothesis of the study, which states that the morphovascular changes of the pregnant uterus during the first month are modulated in different degrees depending on the quality of development of the concept was confirmed. Finally, this study provided a better understanding of the endocrine, morphological and vascular physiology of normal and altered embryos of cloning by SCNT during the first gestational month, providing a basis for new studies on the development and maintenance of initial gestation in cattle.

Die prospektive Studie untersuchte den Verlauf von Hochrisikoschwangerschaften mit zwischen 24/0 und 34/0 Schwangerschaftswochen erstmals diagnostiziertem ARED-Flow in der Arteria umbilicalis hinsichtlich ihres fetal outcome im Vergleich zu einer nach Gestationsalter gematchten Kontrollgruppe. Während der Studiendauer von 1995-1999 wurden 60 Feten aus Einlingsschwangerschaften mit ARED-Flow in der Umbilikalarterie in die Beobachtung einbezogen. Feten mit Malformationen und Chromosomenanomalien wurden ausgeschlossen. Die Beobachtung erfolgte mit wiederholten Doppler-Messungen der arteriellen und venösen Gefäße, mit CTG und mütterlichen Parametern. Eine Entbindung wurde eingeleitet, wenn sich entweder die fetalen Parameter verschlechterten (68%), wie ein Reverse Flow im Ductus venosus oder späte Dezelerationen im CTG oder eine mütterliche Indikation gegeben war (28%), wie das Auftreten einer Präeklampsie. Gemäß Protokoll wurden 50% der Feten mit ARED-Flow 6 Tage nach Erstdiagnose entbunden. Bei mütterlicher Indikation war dies bereits nach 4 Tagen, bei fetaler Indikation nach 7 Tagen der Fall. Im Ergebnis zeigte sich eine Mortalität von 38% mit 23 Verstorbenen (16 intrauteriner Fruchttod und 7 postnataler Tod), die meisten intrauterinen Fruchttode (14) traten bei einem Schwangerschaftsalter unter 29/0 SSW auf. 44 Feten wurden lebend geboren. Die lebendgeborenen Feten wurden in drei Gruppen A, B und C nach dem bei der Entbindung erreichten Schwangerschaftsalter eingeteilt. Zwischen 24/0 und 28/6 SSW (Gruppe A) betrug die Mortalität 36%, zwischen 29/0 und 31/6 SSW (Gruppe B) 10% und ab 32/0 SSW (Gruppe C) 8%. Signifikante Unterschiede zwischen den drei Gruppen zeigten sich bezüglich des Auftretens von periventrikulärer Leukomalazie (nur A: 36%), von neurologischen Auffälligkeiten (A: 73%, B: 45%, C: 8%), von Atemnotsyndrom (A: 100%, B: 35%, C: 8%) und hinsichtlich der Apgar-Werte nach 5 und 10 Minuten. Die 44 lebendgeborenen Feten mit ARED-Flow wurden einer nach Schwangerschaftswochen gematchten Kontrollgruppe normgewichtiger Frühgeborener gegenübergestellt. Zwischen den Feten mit ARED-Flow und der Kontrollgruppe konnten verschiedene signifikante Unterschiede festgestellt werden: In der ARED-Gruppe fanden sich niedrigere pH-Werte (p=0,001), ein geringeres Geburtsgewicht (p=0.0001), häufigeres Auftreten von bronchopulmonaler Dysplasie (p=0.002) und von Darmkomplikationen (p=0.01). Weitere beobachtete Parameter, wie z.B. peri- und intraventrikuläre Hämorrhagien, neurologische Auffälligkeiten, waren nicht signifikant verschieden. Allerdings war das Risiko postnatal zu versterben in der ARED-Gruppe 8-fach erhöht. Es ergibt sich der Rückschluss, dass die Diagnose ARED-Flow eine Gruppe ernsthaft hypotropher hypoxämischer Feten umschreibt, die eine hohe Mortalitäts- und Morbiditätsrate aufweist. Die Mortalität ist tendenziell bei niedrigem Schwangerschaftsalter bei der Entbindung (vor 29/0 SSW), bei extrem niedrigem Geburtsgewicht (unterhalb der 3. Perzentile), bei Vorliegen von spät auftretenden Dopplerveränderungen (wie Reverse Flow in der Arteria umbilicalis oder pathologischem venösen Doppler) erhöht. Obwohl die Inzidenz peri- und intraventrikulärer Hämorrhagien (16%) und neurologischer Defizite (40%) hoch war, erwies sich dieser Unterschied gegenüber den Frühgeborenen der Kontrollgruppe als nicht signifikant. Es kann angenommen werden, dass eine Verlängerung der Schwangerschaft unter venöser Dopplerkontrolle das fetal outcome verbessert. / The study examined prospectively the progression of high-risk pregnancies in cases of ARED flow in the Arteria umbilicalis detected between 24/0 and 34/0 weeks gestation in respect of their fetal outcome compared with a gestational age-matched control group. During the 1995-99 study period, 60 fetuses from singleton pregnancies with ARED flow in the umbilical artery were included in the study. Fetuses with malformations and anoiploidy were excluded. Surveillance was performed by repeated Doppler measurements of arterial and venous vessels, CTG and maternal parameters. Delivery was induced when either fetal parameters deteriorated (68%), as in the case of reverse flow in the Ductus venosus or late decelerations in CTG, or when maternal indication (28%) was given, as when pre-eclampsia occurred. Following our protocol, 50% of fetuses with ARED flow were delivered 6 days after the first diagnosis. In the event of maternal indication, this took place after 4 days, with fetal indication after 7 days. The results showed a mortality rate of 38% with 23 deaths (16 intrauterine and 7 postnatal). The majority of intrauterine deaths (14) occurred under 29/0 weeks of term. 44 fetuses were born live. The fetuses born live were divided into Groups A, B and C in line with gestational age on delivery. Mortality between 24/0 and 28/6 weeks pregnancy (Group A) was 36%, between 29/0 and 31/6 weeks (Group B) 10%, and 8% from 32/0 weeks onward (Group C). Significant variations between the three groups was indicated in the incidence of periventricular leukomalacia (only A:36%), neurological development (A:73%, B:45%, C:8%), respiratory syndrome (A:100%, B:35%, C:8%), and in relation to the Apgar values after 5 and 10 minutes. The 44 fetuses with ARED flow born live were compared with a control group of preterm neonates of average weight and similar gestational age. Various significant differences could be shown between ARED flow fetuses and the control group: the ARED group showed lower pH values (p=0.001), lower birth weight (p=0.0001), and a higher incidence of broncho-pulmonal dysplasia (p=0.002) and of intestinal complications (p=0.01). Other observed parameters such as peri- and intraventricular haemorrhage and neurological development were not significantly different. Nevertheless, the risk of postnatal death was 8 times higher in the ARED group. It has to be concluded that diagnosis of ARED flow encompasses a group of severely hypotrophic, acidemic fetuses showing high rates of mortality and morbidity. Mortality tends to increase in the case of low gestational age on delivery (up to 29/0 weeks), in cases of extremely low birth weight (less than 3%), and in incidences of late Doppler changes (such as reverse flow in the umbilical artery or pathological venous Doppler). Although the incidence of peri- and intraventricular haemorrhages (16%) and neurological defects (40%) was high, compared with the neonates of the control group it was insignificant; It can be assumed that prolongation of pregnancy using venous Doppler improves the fetal outcome.

<p>Uvod: Vi&scaron;eplodne trudnoće se javljaju u 1,5% svih trudnoća nakon spontane koncepcije, dok nakon postupaka vantelesne oplodnje ovaj postotak u Evropi iznosi preko 20% uz velike varijacije među zemljama. U na&scaron;oj sredini, stopa vi&scaron;eplodnih trudnoća nakon postupaka vantelesne oplodnje iznosi daleko iznad 30%. Pojava hipertenzivnog sindroma u trudnoći, gestacijskog dijabetesa, operativnog zavr&scaron;avanja trudnoće, prevremenog porođaja, male porođajne telesne mase, neurolo&scaron;kih sekvela kod rođene dece i gotovo svih drugih komplikacija po majku i plod, kao i celokupno opterećenje zdravstvenog sistema vi&scaron;estruko su veći kod vi&scaron;eplodnih u odnosu na jednoplodne trudnoće i udeo navednih komplikacija raste sa brojem plodova. Sa druge strane deca iz postupaka vantelesne oplodnje čine i do 4,5% sve živorođene dece u pojedinim zemljama, &scaron;to uz činjenicu da infertilitet pogađa 16-18% parova u na&scaron;oj sredini daje ovoj pojavi posebnu dimenziju i činije i dru&scaron;tvenim problemom. Perinatalni ishodi trudnoća iz postupaka vantelesne oplodnje su u velikoj meri kompromitovani visokom stopom multiplih trudnoća, koje se danas smatraju komplikacijom, a ne uspehom postupaka vantelesne oplodnje. Jednoplodne trudnoće iz postupaka vantelesne oplodnje u većim studijama pokazuju diskretno slabije perinatalne ishode u odnosu na one spontano začete, dok kod vi&scaron;eplodnih trudnoća ova korelacija nije jasno izražena i dokumentovana, uz prisutnu dilemu da li je vi&scaron;eplodnost sama po sebi ili način koncepcije glavni problem u zapaženoj pojavi. Cilj rada: Uporediti perinatalne ishode vi&scaron;eplodnih trudnoća nastalih postupcima vantelesne oplodnje i spontano začetih kao i perinatalne ishode jednoplodnih i vi&scaron;eplodnih trudnoća iz postupaka vantelesne oplodnje. Pored navdenog cilj rada je i ukazati sveobuhvatnost navedenog problema i na moguća re&scaron;enja za smanjenje njihove učestalosti. Materijal i metode: Kombinacijom retrospektivne opservacione studije i prospektivne longitudinalne kohortne studije u periodu analizom perinatalnih ishoda pacijentkinja porođenih na Klinici za ginekologiju i aku&scaron;erstvo Kliničkog centra Vojvodine u periodu od od 01.01.2008. do 31.12.2010. godine, studija je analizirala i poredila perinatalne ishode kod 174 spontano začete vi&scaron;eplodne trudnoće, 163 vi&scaron;eplodne trudnoće nastale postupkom vantelesne oplodnje, kao i 155 jednoplodnih trudnoća začete postupkom vantelesne oplodnje. Analizirani parametric bili su telesna masa novorođenčeta, dostignuta gestacijska starost, vrednosti Apgar skora, učestalost hipertenzivnog sindroma kod majke i brojni drugi parametri perinatalnog ishoda. Uzeti od strane obučenih kliničara i uno&scaron;eni u posebno dizajniranu bazu podataka, rezultati su statistički analizirani u program JMP ver 9.0 (SAS publisher) uz kori&scaron;ćenje ANOVA analize za testiranje statističke značajnosti između srednjih vrednosti kontinuiranih varijabli, dok je statistička značajnost razlike učestalosti kategorijskih varijabli je određivana Pearsonovim &chi;2 testom. Rezultati: Jednoplodne ART trudnoće uz prosečnu starost od 33,5 godine, prosečnu gestacijsku starost na porođaju od 38,26 gn, udeo prevremenih porođaja od 12,9%, prosečnu telesnu masu od 3258 g, AS u prvom minutu od 8,35 i u petom minutu od 9,2, stopu carskog reza od 65,81%, udeo GDM-a od 7,1%, anemije od 41,94% i preeklampsije od 4,52%, ima sve relevantne parametre perinatalnog ishoda statistički značajno (p&lt;0.0001) superiornije od kako ART tako i non ART blizanačkih trudnoća. ART blizanačke trudnoće pokazale su prosečnu starost majke od 32,9 godina, prosečnu gestacijsku starost na porođaju od 35,6 gn, udeo prevremenih porođaja od 58,27%, prosečnu telesnu masu od 2374 g, AS u prvom minutu od 7,45 i u petom minutu od 8,65, stopu carskog reza od 83,7%, udeo GDM-a od 15,11%, anemije od 78,42% i preeklampsije od 12,23%, dok su non ART blizanačke trudnoće pokazale prosečnu starost majke od 28,8 godina, prosečnu gestacijsku starost na porođaju od 36,08 gn, udeo prevremenih porođaja od 49,71%, prosečnu telesnu masu od 2433 g, AS u prvom minutu od 7,75 i u petom minutu od 8,75, stopu carskog reza od 58,33%, udeo GDM-a od 7,02%, anemije od 67,84% i preeklampsije od 11,11%. Pored godina majke i udela carskog reza koji su bili vi&scaron;i u ART blizanačkim trudnoćama (&lt;0.0001), kao i blago veće pojavi poremećaja količine plodove vode (p=0,033), gotovo svi ostali pokazatelji toka i ishoda trudnoće bili su komparabilni u navedenim grupama. Diskusija i zaključak: Studija je pokazala da su tok i ishod vi&scaron;eplodnih trudnoća nastalih spontano i postupcima vantelesne oplodnje ekvivalentni u gotovo svim pokazateljima uz sličnu prosečnu telesnu masu i gestacijsku starost novorođenčadi, kao i da su svi navedeni parametri ovih vi&scaron;eplodnih trudnoća bez obzira na način koncepcije upadljivo i podjednako lo&scaron;iji u poređenju sa jednoplodnim trudnoćama iz postupka vantelesne oplodnje. Izuzimajući vi&scaron;eplodnost kao factor rizika deca iz postupaka vantelesne oplodnje su generalno zdrava. Sama vi&scaron;eplodnost, a ne način koncepcije predstavljaju problem, koje se sa pravom smatra najvećom komplikacijom vantelesne oplodnje. Dodatna analiza iskustava drugih zdravstvenih sistema ukazuje da jedino &scaron;iroka i sveobuhvatna implementacija strategije vraćanja samo jednog embriona (Single embryo transfer &ndash; SET) može da dovede do smanjivanje stope multiplih trudnoća nakon postupaka vantelesne oplodnje, i sledstvenih komplikacija, a bez ugrožavanja samog uspeha vantelesne oplodnje. Iskustva drugih zdravstvenih sistema ukazuju da je uspe&scaron;na implementacija SET-a jedino moguća uz angažovanje celog dru&scaron;tva, zajedno sa brojnim legislativnim merama iz domena nadzora, kontrole i finansiranja postupaka vantelesne oplodnje. Obim i način finansiranja postupaka vantelesne oplodnje od strane države (uz vi&scaron;e besplatnih poku&scaron;aja za infertilne parove) uz obaveznu upotrebu SET-a, i sistema krioprezervacije na osnovu primera iz prakse predstavlja ključ u borbi za smanjenje problema vi&scaron;eplodnih trudnoća nakon postupaka vantelesne oplodnje.</p> / <p>Introduction: Multiple pregnancies occur in 1.5% of all pregnancies after spontaneous conception and in more than 20 % of all pregnancies concieved after assisted reproductive technologies in Europe, with large variations between countries. In our setting, the rate of multiple pregnancies after the ART is well above 30%. The occurrence of hypertensive syndrome in pregnancy, gestational diabetes, operative delivery, premature birth, low birth weight, neurological and developmental impairment in children, and almost all the other complications for the mother and fetus, as well as the entire burden of the health system are several times higher in multiple pregnancies compared with singleton pregnancies. Incidence of&nbsp; forementioned complications rises with number of fetuses. On the other hand, children from in vitro fertilization procedures make up 4.5% of all live births in some countries, which together with the fact that infertility affects aproximately 16-18% of couples in our country gives an extra dimension to this phenomenon and makes it not just medical but wider social problem. Perinatal outcomes of pregnancies after assisted reproductive technologies (ART) are greatly compromised by the high rate of multiple pregnancies, which are now considered to be a complication rather than success of ART procedures. ART Singleton pregnancies have, in larger studies, show discretely lower perinatal outcomes compared with those conceived spontaneously, while for the multiple pregnancies, this correlation is not clearly expressed and documented. There remains dilemma whether multiplicity itself or the way of conception (ART vs. non ART) constitutes a major problem in the observed differences regarding perinatal outcome of ART pregnancies. Objective: To compare the perinatal outcomes of multiple pregnancies conceived by In vitro fertilization (IVF) and spontaneously and perinatal outcomes of IVF conceived singleton and multiple pregnancies. Additional aim of this thesis is to point out the complexity of this problem and offer possible solutions. Materials and Methods: Design of a study was a combination of retrospective and prospective observational longitudinal cohort study. Analysis included pregnancies which had delivery at the Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Clinical Center of Vojvodina in the period from 1.01.2008. to 31.12.2010. The study analyzed and compared the perinatal outcomes in 174 spontaneous conceived multiple pregnancies, 163 multiple pregnancies resulting from IVF procedures, and 155 singleton pregnancies conceived by IVF procedure. Analyzed parameters were newborns birth weight, gestational age at delivery, the value of the Apgar score, occurrence of hypertensive syndrome in pregnancy, gestational diabetes, as well as numerous parameters of perinatal outcome. Taken by trained clinicians and were entered into a specially designed database, the results were statistically analyzed in JMP ver 9.0 software (SAS publisher) using ANOVA analysis to test the statistical significance between the mean values of continuous variables, while the statistical significance of the difference in frequency of categorical variables was assessed by Pearsons &chi;2 test. Results: ART singleton pregnancies had an average mothers age of 33.5 years, the average gestational age at birth of 38.26 gestational weeks (gw), preterm delivery rate of 12.9%, average birth weight 3258 g, Apgar score (AS) in the first minute 8.35, and in the fifth minute 9.2, cesarean section rate 65.81%, Gestational diabetes (GDM) in 7.1% pregnancies, anemia occurred in 41.94% of pregnancies, while preeclampsia was observed in 4.52% of all pregnancies. All relevant parameters of perinatal outcome were significantly (p&lt;0.0001) superior to both ART and non-ART twin pregnancies. ART twin pregnancy showed the average mothers age of 32.9 years, the average gestational age at birth of 35.6 gw, the preterm delivery rate 58.27%, the average body weight newborns 2374 g, AS in the first minute of 7.45, and in the fifth minute of 8.65, the cesarean section rate of 83.7%, GDM in 15.11% of all pregnancies, anemia occurred in 78.42% and preeclampsia in 12.23% of pregnancies, while the non-ART twin pregnancy showed an average mothers age of 28.8 years, the average gestational age at birth of 36.08 gw, the preterm delivery rate of 49.71%, the average body weight of 2433 g, AS in the first minute of 7.75 in the fifth minute 8.75, the caesarian section rate of 58.33%, GDM-a occurred in 7.02%, anemia in 67.84% and preeclampsia in 11.11% of pregnancies. Except for maternal age and the caesarean section rate, which were significantly higher in ART twin pregnancies (p&lt;0.0001), as well as small increase in proportion of amniotic fluid volume disorders (p = 0.033), almost all other parameters of perinatal outcome of were comparable in these groups. Discussion and Conclusion: The study showed that the course and outcome of multiple pregnancies conceived spontaneous and after IVF procedures are equivalent in almost all parameters with similar average body weight and gestational age at birth, and that all these parameters of multiple pregnancies regardless of the conception mode are equally worse compared with singleton pregnancies from IVF procedures. With the exception of multiplicity as a risk factor children from in vitro fertilization procedures are generally healthy. Multiplicity itself and not the mode of conception presented a problem, which is rightly considered the major complication of IVF today. Additional analysis of the experiences of other health system indicates that only a broad and comprehensive implementation of strategy to return only one embryo (SET&ndash;single embryo transfer) can lead to a reduction of the rate of multiple pregnancies after IVF procedures, and the accompanying complications, without compromising IVF success. The experience of other health systems indicate that a successful implementation of SET is only possible with the involvement of the whole society, along with a number of legislative measures in the field of monitoring, control and reimbursement of assisted reproduction procedures. The scope and funding of an IVF procedures (with more free attempts for infertile couples, reimbursed by public health) with mandatory use of SET, and good cryopreservation programs are, based on examples in other countries who had successfully dealt with his problem, is the key in reducing the problem of multiple pregnancies after IVF procedures.</p>

This study explored knowledge, perceptions and attitudes regarding contraception and contraceptive practices among secondary school learners in the Limpopo Province. Self-administered questionnaires were completed by 612 Grade 8 and 332 Grade 12 learners from 24 randomly selected secondary schools. The study found that permissive attitudes prevailed towards sex, characterised by casual sexual activities commencing at 12 years of age. The availability of contraceptive and termination of pregnancy (TOP) services did not enable learners to utilise them, because of social, cultural, financial and service barriers. Most learners were sexually active without being knowledgeable about contraceptives, emergency contraceptives and TOP services. Two workshops conducted with learners produced similar results to those obtained from the completed questionnaires. Semi-structured interviews conducted with nurses, providing contraceptive and TOP services in the Limpopo Province, also substantiated the findings from the questionnaires. Secondary school learners in the Limpopo Province require more knowledge about and ready access to contraceptives to enable them to delay child bearing until they are emotionally, financially and physically ready for these responsibilities. Nurses and teachers in this province can enhance the learners' contraceptive knowledge and utilisation to help learners make better informed decisions about their own and their future children's lives. / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)

This study investigated factors contributing to adolescent mothers' non-utilisation of contraceptives in the Piet Retief (Mkhondo) area. Contraceptives, emergency contraceptives and termination of pregnancy services are available free of charge. Nevertheless the number of adolescent mothers continues to increase in this area. Structured questionnaires were completed by 107 adolescent mothers. Most respondents (70,0%) received no sex education prior to their pregnancies, and were not knowledgeable about contraceptives. Subsequent to the birth of their babies, only 59,81% used contraceptives, risking further pregnancies. Adolescents, from the age of 12, should receive sex education. Availability of contraceptives during weekends could help adolescents to postpone their pregnancies. Health education should be given to the mothers in the Piet Retief (Mkhondo) area so that they can provide more effective sex education (including contraception) to their daughters. / Health Studies / M.A. (Health Studies)

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This study explored knowledge, perceptions and attitudes regarding contraception and contraceptive practices among secondary school learners in the Limpopo Province. Self-administered questionnaires were completed by 612 Grade 8 and 332 Grade 12 learners from 24 randomly selected secondary schools. The study found that permissive attitudes prevailed towards sex, characterised by casual sexual activities commencing at 12 years of age. The availability of contraceptive and termination of pregnancy (TOP) services did not enable learners to utilise them, because of social, cultural, financial and service barriers. Most learners were sexually active without being knowledgeable about contraceptives, emergency contraceptives and TOP services. Two workshops conducted with learners produced similar results to those obtained from the completed questionnaires. Semi-structured interviews conducted with nurses, providing contraceptive and TOP services in the Limpopo Province, also substantiated the findings from the questionnaires. Secondary school learners in the Limpopo Province require more knowledge about and ready access to contraceptives to enable them to delay child bearing until they are emotionally, financially and physically ready for these responsibilities. Nurses and teachers in this province can enhance the learners' contraceptive knowledge and utilisation to help learners make better informed decisions about their own and their future children's lives. / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)

This study investigated factors contributing to adolescent mothers' non-utilisation of contraceptives in the Piet Retief (Mkhondo) area. Contraceptives, emergency contraceptives and termination of pregnancy services are available free of charge. Nevertheless the number of adolescent mothers continues to increase in this area. Structured questionnaires were completed by 107 adolescent mothers. Most respondents (70,0%) received no sex education prior to their pregnancies, and were not knowledgeable about contraceptives. Subsequent to the birth of their babies, only 59,81% used contraceptives, risking further pregnancies. Adolescents, from the age of 12, should receive sex education. Availability of contraceptives during weekends could help adolescents to postpone their pregnancies. Health education should be given to the mothers in the Piet Retief (Mkhondo) area so that they can provide more effective sex education (including contraception) to their daughters. / Health Studies / M.A. (Health Studies)

The purpose of this study was to explore the life experiences of multiparous teenage mothers at selected communities in the Eastern Cape Province. The population for this study was pregnant teenage mothers aged 12-18 years having at least one previous pregnancy, living in the catchment areas of the provincial hospital of Bizana in the Alfred Nzo District of the Eastern Cape Province. Data were collected through 12 semi-structured individual interviews using a selfdeveloped interview schedule. The transcribed interviews were analysed by means of thematic analysis, using the five stages according to Terre Blanche, et al. (2006), namely familiarisation, inducing themes, coding, elaboration, and checking. Subcategories were grouped into 12 categories and five main themes. Findings on the life experiences of the multiparous teenage mothers are described according to the main themes, namely the everyday life of the teenage mothers, cultural practices leading to pregnancies, factors contributing to pregnancies, challenges experienced by teenage mothers, and messages from the teenage mothers. Recommendations focus on the role of social services to engage the multidisciplinary team and the community to assist in the empowerment of young mothers to break the cycle of multiparous teenage pregnancies and the negative impact thereof on the lives of young mothers. / Health Studies / M. P. H.