Nous vivons à l’ère des incertitudes. Au débat épistémologique de la certitude scientifique s’agrègent des incertitudes sociales, politiques, informationnelles qui structurent les controverses dans l’espace social. À l’école, l’enseignement des questions socialement vives (énergie nucléaire, OGM, etc) matérialise ces incertitudes. Comment les indéterminations rencontrées par les enseignantes de sciences reconfigurent leur rapport aux savoirs en jeu dans la controverse et l’idée qu’elles se font de la manière d’enseigner ? J’ai mené mon enquête au sein de deux systèmes éducatifs, l’éducation nationale (enseignantes de SVT) et l’enseignement agricole (enseignantes de différentes disciplines), autour de la question vive de la transition agroécologique. De manière générale, les questions socialement vives placent les enseignantes en insécurité épistémique. Les questions vives les amènent à construire leur point de vue sur le sujet pendant la phase de préparation de cours, voire pendant l’enseignement. Cela implique une reconfiguration de leur posture professionnelle que certaines acceptent, faisant le deuil de la volonté d’exhaustivité épistémique, d’autres ne l’acceptant pas et cherchant à renforcer leur position quant à la maîtrise du savoir. Mon observation des situations de formation – autour de la cartographie de controverse ou de la construction collective d’un scénario pédagogique – montre que certains dispositifs de la démarche d’enquête socio-scientifique permettent d’explorer la complexité de la question. À l’image des scénarios du futur, de véritables outils restent toutefois à concevoir, en complémentarité avec une réelle formation épistémologique et médiatique des enseignantes de sciences et une reconsidération du principe de neutralité. Ce sont là les conditions d’existence d’une éducation aux incertitudes qui puisse donner aux citoyennes les ressources pour se réapproprier des futurs dont la justesse socio-politique serait le véritable horizon. / Appear by now some social, political, informational uncertainties that structure the dynamic of the controversies in the social space. Within classroom, the teaching of socially acute questions (as nuclear energy, GMOs, animal welfare, etc) provides the opportunity to work on these uncertainties. How do the uncertainties encountered by science teachers reconfigure their relation to the knowledge involved in the controversy and the representation they have about science teaching? I investigated in two educational systems, general education (biology teachers) and agricultural education (teachers from different disciplines) around the acute question of agroecological transition. Overall, socially acute questions expose the teachers to epistemic insecurity. Intrinsically, these questions lead them to construct their point of view on the subject during the course preparation or potentially during the teaching activity. It implies a reconfiguration of their professional posture that some of them accept, mourning epistemic completeness, and that others don’t accept, looking for strengthening their position concerning knowledge mastering. My observation of professional training situations – around mapping controversies or developing a pedagogical scenario – shows that some devices of socio-scientific inquiry allow an exploration of the question’s complexity. However, efficient tools have still to be thought or adapted, as scenarios of the future, in complement with a real epistemological and informational training of science teachers. These are the living conditions of an uncertainty education that would give to the citizens resources for a reappropriation of their futures and, finally, create opportunities whose socio-political relevance is the proper horizon.

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Elever ska få möjlighet att utveckla sina muntliga förmågor. Syftet med studien är att undersöka muntlighetskulturen i klassrummet med utgångspunkt i lärares sätt att formulera frågor i helklassundervisning. Vi fokuserar därför på att undersöka lärarens roll när det kommer till den muntliga miljön vid ett undervisningstillfälle. För att uppnå studiens syfte gjordes två ljudinspelade observationer där elevernas svarsfrekvens observerades samt att lärarnas frågor analyserades i efterhand och kategoriserades med öppna- och slutna frågor. Sedan kategoriserades samtliga frågor med hjälp av begreppet frihetsgrader. Observationerna gjordes i två olika klasser, båda i årskurs 5. Vi observerade två lärare under två svensklektioner. Resultatet visar att 33 av 40 elever fick chansen att svara på frågor under lektionerna. Lärarnas strategier för att fördela frågor påverkade fördelningen av frågorna. Analysen av frågorna visar att eleverna har möjlighet att svara fritt på 14 av 49 frågor som ställdes under observationerna. Resultatet framhäver att lärarens frågor påverkar muntligheten i klassrummet, lärares tekniker för formulering av frågeställning och tekniker för att avgöra vem som ska svara på frågan är av stor vikt och något lärare bör reflektera över vid planeringen av undervisningen.

The aim of this dissertation is to chart the development of interrogative syntax among Finnish-speaking children between the ages of 1 to 4 years living in Sweden. The material consists of language samples taken from eleven Sweden-Finnish children with Finnish as their first language. The data from the corpus have been compared with acquisition studies of Finnish-speaking children in Finland, with material from an adult-language corpus and with studies of children speaking other languages than Finnish. The first questions appearing in the corpus are wh-questions, on average at the age of 1.9 and one month earlier than yes/no-questions. Both wh-questions and yes/no-questions are produced by all children in the corpus, whereas disjunctive questions are used by only one child. Wh-questions comprise approximately two thirds of the interrogatives and yes/no-questions a third; only one disjunctive question is used. The older the child, the greater the proportion of yes/no-questions. The earliest wh-question words are tnikä 'what' nom. sg., missä 'where' and mita 'what' part, sg., used by one-year-olds. Kuka 'who' nom. sg., mihin 'where to' and miten 'how' all appear before the age of 2.6, and miksi 'why1, mista 'where from' and minkä 'what* acc. 1 sg. start being used before the age of three. The use of milloin 'when', kenen 'whose', minkä varinen 'of what color' and mitkä 'what' nom. pl. commences at the age of three. Other question words and question word forms are produced by a few children. Wh-interrogative clauses in this study have been divided into ellipses, on-clauses, V-clauses and Adnom-clauses. The ellipses and cm-clauses are acquired on average at the age of 1.9, V-clauses at 1.11 and Adnom-clauses at 2.3. The question words are used correctly for the most part, with the same references as in adult speech. Semantic misuse of mikä 'what' was detected in 2 % of the pronoun's occurrences; kuka 'who' is misused relatively often, 38 % of the time. The different case forms of the interrogative pronouns and adjectives are on the whole used correctly. One pronoun form susceptible to misuse is nom. sg. mikä 'what', often erroneously produced instead of some other case form. The interrogative adverbs are used according to adult norms almost without exception. The earliest yes/no-questions in the corpus are -kO-questions, starting on average at age 1.10; the use of -hAn-questions begins at age 2.5. Other yes/no-questions appear at a much later date. The first -kO-questions are neutral -kO-questions. Focused -kO-questions are acquired somewhat later on. The neutral -kO-questions have been divided into onko 'Is it?'-questions, Simple V+kO-questions, Aux+kO-questions and Neg+kO+V-questions; the various types of questions are acquired in that order. The interrogative clauses in the corpus have been categorized as information-eliciting questions, directive questions, conversational questions and expressive questions; their acquisition follows ibis order. / digitalisering@umu

Σκοπός της εργασίας αυτής είναι η μελέτη της επίδοσης κωφών μαθητών σε διάφορα είδη αριθμητικών προβλημάτων. Συγκεκριμένα, η μελέτη των επιδόσεων κωφών μαθητών σε αριθμητικά προβλήματα προσθετικού τύπου σε σχέση με την τάξη που παρακολουθούν, το είδος του προβλήματος, καθώς και η επίδραση της χρήσης Ελληνικής Νοηματικής Γλώσσας στη κατανόηση των προβλημάτων. Τα ερωτήματα στα οποία γίνετε μια προσπάθεια να απαντηθούν είναι: (1) σε ποιό βαθμό η χρήση Ελληνικής Νοηματικής Γλώσσας κατά την εκφώνηση του αριθμητικού προβλήματος διευκολύνει την κατανόηση του και επομένως συμβάλει θετικά στην επίλυση του, (2) σε ποιο βαθμό η επίδοση των μαθητών στα ίδια αριθμητικά προβλήματα διαφοροποιείται ανάλογα με την τάξη, την οποία παρακολουθούν, και την ηλικία τους και (3) εάν το είδος του αριθμητικού προβλήματος σχετίζεται με τη φοίτηση των μαθητών π.χ. εάν κάποια προβλήματα γίνονται κατανοητά σε παιδιά μεγαλύτερης τάξης. Στην έρευνα πήραν μέρος επτά μαθητές (Ν=7) από τα Ειδικά Δημοτικά Σχολεία Κωφών και Βαρηκόων Αργυρούπολης και Πάτρας και 30 μαθητές (Ν=30) από το Δημοτικό Σχολείο Γαλατά Τροιζήνας, οι οποίοι αποτέλεσαν την ομάδα ελέγχου. Τα αποτελέσματα έδειξαν ότι οι κωφοί και οι βαρήκοοι μαθητές παρουσιάζουν χαμηλότερες επιδόσεις στην επίλυση αριθμητικών προβλημάτων τύπου από αυτές των ακουόντων μαθητών ίδιας ηλικίας, ανεξαρτήτως τρόπου επικοινωνίας. Συγκεκριμένα, οι επιδόσεις τους στην περίπτωση που γίνετε χρήση Ε.Ν.Γ. κατά την εκφώνηση των παραπάνω προβλημάτων, παρουσιάζονται αρκετά βελτιωμένες από την περίπτωση της χρήσης γραπτού λόγου. Επιπλέον, οι επιδόσεις των κωφών και βαρήκοων μαθητών της έκτης τάξης, και με τους δύο τρόπους επικοινωνίας, είναι καλύτερες από αυτές των μαθητών της πέμπτης τάξης. Όσον αφορά τις επιδόσεις των κωφών μαθητών στα διάφορα είδη αριθμητικών προβλημάτων, φαίνεται να έχουν καλύτερη επίδοση από όλους στα προβλήματα αυτά, στα οποία δίνονται όλες οι αρχικές ποσότητες και ζητείται η τελική, όπως και σε αυτά που οι λέξεις που χρησιμοποιούνται είναι συνεπείς με τις πράξεις που απαιτούνται για την επίλυση τους. Οι μαθητές της έκτης τάξης παρουσιάζουν καλύτερη επίδοση σε όλα τα υπόλοιπα προβλήματα. Τέλος, τα παραπάνω αποτελέσματα πρέπει να ληφθούν σοβαρά υπόψη από τους δασκάλους και τους μαθηματικούς, ώστε να βελτιώσουν τη διδασκαλία τους με το να χρησιμοποιούν Ελληνική Νοηματική Γλώσσα για να κατανοούν οι μαθητές πλήρως τις διάφορες έννοιες και τη μαθηματική γλώσσα. Επίσης θα πρέπει να βελτιωθεί η αναγνωστική ικανότητα των κωφών γενικότερα ώστε να μπορούν να κατανοούν τα αριθμητικά προβλήματα και να δοθεί περισσότερος χρόνος στη διδασκαλία των μαθηματικών. / The purpose of this assignment was a first study of deaf students' performance in different types of arithmetic problems. Specifically, the study of deaf students' performance on arithmetic problems to comparison with the class monitor, the type of the problem, and the influence of Greek Sign Language use in understanding of these problems. To analyze this, there was an attempt to answer the following questions: (1) to what extent the use of Greek Sign Language in the pronunciation of arithmetic problem makes them easier for understanding and thus contribute positively to their being answered, (2) to what extent the performance of students at the same arithmetic problems varies according to the order, which follow, and their age and (3) whether the type of arithmetic problem associates with the attendance of students, e.g. if some types of problems are more understandable to older children. Seven students (N = 7) of the Special Primary Schools for Deaf and Hard of Hearing of Argyroupolis and Patras participated in this study as well as 30 students (N = 30) of the Elementary School of Galatas Trizoinias, which served as the control group. The results of the study showed that deaf and hard of hearing students are less efficient in solving arithmetic problems than their hearing piers, regardless of the method of communication. Specifically, their performance, when using G.S.L., are presented quite improved than the use of case writing. Moreover, the performance of sixth grade deaf and hard of hearing students, with both modes of communication are better than those of students of fifth grade. Regarding the performance of deaf students in different types of arithmetic problems they seem to have better performance when all the original amounts are given and the final is been asked. Also when the words used in the problems are consistent with the acts required to solve them. The students of sixth grade are better in the problems. Finally, these results should be taken seriously by teachers and mathematicians to improve their teaching, by using Greek Sign Language, so as their students to understand fully the various mathematical concepts and language. Also they should try to improve the reading ability of deaf students in general so that they can understand the arithmetic problems and also give more time to the teaching of mathematics.

Little empirical research has been conducted on what effect task-based reading instruction with reading questions will have on reading comprehension, particularly in the domain of second language reading comprehension. The purpose of this research is to investigate which type of questions, textually explicit (TE) or inferential (IF) questions, will best facilitate text comprehension, and which type will have the most beneficial effect on Japanese EFL learners at three proficiency levels (low, intermediate, and high). In the study, two groups of Japanese senior high school students (N = 69) were classified into three different proficiency groups. One group received instruction emphasizing TE questions while the other received instruction emphasizing IF questions. TE questions are text-bound questions whose answers are locally and explicitly stated in the text. In contrast, IF questions are more knowledge-bound questions whose answers largely depend on readers' cognitive resources, such as relevant linguistic knowledge, background knowledge, world knowledge or context. The different treatments lasted five months. The results were statistically analyzed. The study revealed a significant task effect for reading questions on Japanese EFL learners' reading. Although one type of instruction did not have a significantly better effect than the other, the large between-groups gain gap seems to imply that instruction emphasizing IF questions might facilitate text comprehension more. The study also found that the participants who received instruction emphasizing IF questions benefited from their instruction regardless of proficiency level. With regard to instruction emphasizing TE questions, the higher proficiency participants benefited significantly more from their instruction than the lower proficiency students. The study suggests that reading teachers should use a task-based teaching method with reading questions. If the use of reading questions is already a part of reading teachers' methodology, they should include not only commonly used textually explicit reading questions but also inferential ones. The study suggests that implementing these changes might help break the cycle of translation-bound reading instruction with its overemphasis on lower-level processing, and might lead students to read texts in a more meaningful, interactive way. / CITE/Language Arts

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are primarily defined by problems with social interaction and communication, but they are also associated with a complex cognitive profile. One area of difficulty for children and adults with ASD is problem-solving, or the process of identifying a solution to a puzzle or question where the answer is hidden. This can be seen on the Twenty Questions Task (TQT), a commonly-used measure of verbal problem-solving and executive functioning. Children with autism are consistently less efficient than typically-developing children in their questioning on the task: for instance, rather than ask a general, category-based question (e.g. “Is it a living thing?”) they may ask about single items (“Is it the dog?”) or very restricted groupings (“Is it something you wear on your feet?”). This has previously been interpreted as an example of a concept formation deficit in autism, deriving from underlying difficulties with complex and integrative information processing. However, success in problemsolving relies on a number of cognitive and linguistic processes that may be impaired in ASD. This thesis attempts to identify which of these may better explain autistic problem-solving performance, using the TQT as a specific example. The first experiment presented here examines the role of executive functioning difficulties in this profile. The performance of 22 children with ASD and 21 age- and IQ-matched typically-developing (TD) children was compared on a version of the TQT adapted to assess planning skills prior to problem-solving and selective attention during the task. Compared to controls, ASD participants were less efficient in their planning of questions, although not all ASD participants had difficulty constructing a plan. No specific effects of selective attention were evident. The second and third experiments explore the importance of atypical language development to this profile, using the example of deafness. Experiment 2 compares the performance of deaf (n = 9) and hearing (n = 27) adults on the TQT, replicating prior evidence of less efficient problem-solving in deaf graduate students. Experiment 3 contrasts TQT performance in 13 deaf schoolchildren with the ASD and TD data acquired in experiment 1. Like ASD children, deaf children were less efficient in their questioning than TD participants, even when controlling for cognitive ability differences. Both autism and deafness are associated with delays in early language development, whereas Asperger Syndrome (AS) is not. To test whether language delay explains autistic problem-solving difficulties, experiment 4 compares TQT performance in 15 children with autism, 15 AS children and 15 age- and IQ- matched typically-developing controls. Participants with autism asked less efficient questions than both AS and TD participants, between whom no differences were observed. This suggests that the problem-solving profile in autism may be better explained as a consequence of atypical language development, rather than other aspects of information processing or executive dysfunction.

The purposes of the study were: 1. To design two contrasting plans of shorthand homework, Method A plan to be used by control groups and Method B plan to be used by experimental groups. 2. To implement Method A plan and Method B plan through control and experimental groups respectively. 3. To define criteria by which achievement levels may be determined. 4. To make comparative analysis of achievement levels between the control groups and the experimental groups.

A research project submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, .Johannesburg, in part fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg 1993. / This study aims at providing some evaluation of the impact of the Transvaal Senior Certificate, Higher Grade, Biology Examination on Biology teaching in the Transvaal, It also looks. at the effectiveness of this exarnlnatlon as an assessment/evaluation instrument. A questlonnalre is used to secure the views qf practising Biology teachers, and teacher trainers, about the stated objectives of Biology teaching at senior high school level in terms of:- - their relative merit and importance. - their attainment through current teachinq practices. - their evaluation by the examination Board, The views of 63 teachers and 9 teacher trainers are analysed and the views of Transvaal and Natal teachers are compared to those of Teacher Trainers. Much consensus is found in the responses of all three groups of educators. They are well aware of modern trends and methodologies in the field of Biology Education but are pessimistic about the current achievement of many of the objectives they identify as being Important for effective Biology Teaching. They see the examination as one which focuses mainly on the assessment of Recall of Knowledge, The implications of these findings are discussed and several recommendations are made. / AC2017