Les bactéries utilisent un mode de communication appelé quorum sensing pour régulerl'expression des gènes en fonction de la densité de population et contrôler ainsi de façonmulticellulaire des processus tels que la sporulation, la compétence ou la virulence. Chez les bactériesà Gram-positif, le quorum sensing repose principalement sur la production, la sécrétion et la détectionde petits peptides de signalisation.Le projet porte sur l'étude du système quorum sensing: NprR/NprX chez Bacillus cereus, oùNprR est l'effecteur qui reconnait spécifiquement le peptide de signalisation NprX. NprR est uneprotéine bi-fonctionnelle. Seule, elle agit en tant qu'inhibiteur de la sporulation, en complexe avecNprX, elle perd sa fonction initiale au profit d'une activité facteur de transcription impliquée dans lavirulence. NprR appartient à une famille d'effecteurs de quorum sensing appelée RNPP (Rap, NprR,PlcR et PrgX) encore mal caractérisée au niveau structural. Mon projet de thèse a consisté en l'analysestructure-fonction du système NprR/NprX.Pour comprendre la régulation fonctionnelle de NprR par NprX, des études en solution (SECMALSet DLS) ont permis de mettre en évidence un switch moléculaire qui repose sur un changementd'oligomérisation. Ainsi NprX fait basculer NprR d'une conformation Apo dimérique à uneconformation compléxée tétramérique.L'étude structurale par cristallographie a aboutit à la résolution de la structure du complexeNprR/NprX. L'analyse de ce tétramère suggère la reconnaissance de 2 sites distincts sur l'ADN.L'étude structurale par SAXS, a quant à elle, permis de proposer une conformation dimérique de laforme Apo NprR, modèle conforté grâce à une étude par mutagénèse dirigée des résidus d'interface. Ils'agit d'un mode de dimérisation semblable à celui des protéines Rap (membres de la famille RNPP).La caractérisation par ITC de l'interaction NprR/NprX avec différentes formes du peptide,ainsi que l'analyse de la poche de fixation du complexe, ont permis de mieux comprendre la spécificitéd'interaction et de mettre en évidence deux résidus clés de l'effecteur : l'Asn275 essentielle à lafixation du peptide et l'Arg 126 essentielle à l'activation de la fonction facteur de transcription.Ces travaux ont contribué à une meilleure compréhension du système quorum sensingNprR/NprX grâce à l'élucidation du switch moléculaire contrôlé par NprX mais aussi à une meilleureconnaissance de la famille d'effecteurs RNPP.

Chez les bactéries sporulantes du genre Bacillus, des mécanismes importants tels que la sporulation et la virulence sont régulés par des systèmes de communication cellulaire qui impliquent des peptides de signalisation et des régulateurs de la famille RNPP (Rap, NprR, PlcR, PrgX). L'objectif de mon travail de thèse a été de déterminer le rôle du régulateur NprR chez les bactéries du groupe B. cereus. Ce travail se divise en trois parties complémentaires. La première partie a consisté à montrer que NprR est impliqué dans un système de communication cellulaire. Nous avons montré que NprR est un régulateur transcriptionnel de début de phase stationnaire qui est dépendant du peptide de signalisation NprX. Associé à NprX, NprR active la transcription du gène nprA qui code pour une protéase extracellulaire. Nous avons démontré que le peptide NprX est sécrété, maturé puis réimporté dans la cellule bactérienne par deux systèmes d'oligopeptide perméase (Opp et Npp). Une fois dans la cellule, la forme mature de NprX (vraisemblablement l'heptapeptide SKPDIVG) se lie à NprR et permet la transcription du gène nprA. Nous avons ensuite cherché à déterminer la fonction de ce régulateur au cours du cycle infectieux de B. thuringiensis (Bt) chez l'insecte. Nous avons montré que NprR est actif après la mort de l'insecte et permet aux bactéries de survivre, sous forme de cellules végétatives, dans les cadavres. Une analyse transcriptomique indique que NprR régule l'expression d'au moins 41 gènes qui codent notamment pour des enzymes dégradatives et un locus de gènes impliqués dans la production d'un peptide synthétisé de façon non ribosomique (la kurstakine). Nous avons démontré que les gènes codant pour les enzymes dégradatives s'expriment spécifiquement après la mort de l'hôte et que les produits de ces gènes sont essentiels pour hydrolyser différents substrats (protéines, lipides, chitine), ce qui suggère que Bt a un mode de vie nécrotrophe dans le cadavre. La kurstakine est essentielle pour la survie de Bt pendant son développement nécrotrophe et nous avons montré que cette molécule est nécessaire pour le swarming et la formation de biofilm. Par ailleurs, un mutant du gène nprR ne se développe pas et ne sporule pas efficacement dans le cadavre. L'ensemble de nos résultats indiquent que le necrotrophisme est un mode de vie hautement régulé, qui est essentiel dans le cycle infectieux de Bt car il contribue à la transmission horizontale de ce micro-organisme. Enfin, nous avons étudié la régulation de l'expression des gènes nprR et nprX. Nous avons montré que les gènes nprR-nprX sont co-transcrits à partir d'un promoteur dépendant de sigma-A (PA) situé en amont du gène nprR. La transcription à partir de ce promoteur débute lors de l'entrée en phase stationnaire et est contrôlée par deux régulateurs transcriptionnels: CodY et PlcR. Le répresseur CodY pourrait se lier à l'ADN en amont du promoteur PA et réprimer la transcription des gènes nprR-nprX pendant la phase exponentielle de croissance. Au début de la phase stationnaire, le contrôle négatif de CodY est levé et PlcR active la transcription de nprR-nprX en se liant à une boîte PlcR située en amont de PA. Nos résultats indiquent que nprX est également transcrit indépendamment de nprR à partir de deux promoteurs, PH et PE, respectivement dépendant de sigma-H et sigma-E. Les deux promoteurs permettent d'assurer la transcription de nprX en phase stationnaire tardive alors que la transcription à partir du promoteur PA est achevée. Cette étude met en évidence le role clé des régulateurs CodY, PlcR and Spo0A dans la régulation de l'expression des gènes nprR-nprX.

Bacterial stationary phase is an interesting biological system to study, as the organism undergoes several metabolic changes during this period and new molecules are generated to support its survival. The stationary phase of mycobacteria has been extensively studied since the discovery of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis. The stationary phase of mycobacteria adds further complication as many antibacterial drugs become less effective. The M. tuberculosis infects the alveolar macrophages and dendritic cells or monocytes recruited from peripheral blood. Macrophages are supposed to provide an initial barrier against the bacterial infection, but fails. Mycobacteria have evolved several strategies to survive and set up an initial residence within these cells and grow actively inside the host. The host immune system tries to limit the bacterial growth and confines the organism to a latent state in which the organism can persist indefinitely, known as granuloma stage. During latency or granuloma stage mycobacteria can retain the ability to resume the growth in the future. Mycobacteria must adapt to a highly dynamic and challenging environment because the interior environment of granuloma is devoid of or in low level of oxygen, depleted nutrient, high carbon dioxide, and possess increased levels of aliphatic organic acids and hydrolytic enzymes. The survival of a bacterium in less nutrient supply or in depleted oxygen is important for its long-¬term persistence inside the host under harsh environmental conditions. Mycobacterium smegmatis is the closest non-¬pathogenic homologue of M. tuberculosis, and has been used widely as a model system to study gene regulation under such conditions. In these harsh environmental conditions bacteria need to sense the external environment to modulate their gene expression. More importantly, each individual cell should communicate with its neighbours, and the response takes place in a concerted manner, which is termed as quorum sensing. Thus, the quorum sensing is a cell-¬cell signaling process that allow the bacteria to monitor the presence of other bacteria in their surroundings by producing and responding to small signaling molecules, which are known as autoinducers. It is a density dependent phenomenon and regulates the expression of the genes in response to fluctuation in cell¬-population density. A minimum threshold level of autoinducers is necessary to detect the signal and respond to it. Quorum sensing enables bacteria to behave like multicellular organisms and controls group activities like biofilm formation, sporulation, bioluminescence, virulence, and pigment production, etc (Bassler, 1999; Camilli & Bassler, 2006; Fuqua et al., 1996; Miller & Bassler, 2001). In Gram-¬negative bacteria, small-¬molecules, which are known as autoinducers are produced. They are acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs), which are derived from S¬adenosyl methionine (SAM) and particular fatty acyl carrier protein by LuxI¬type AHL synthases (Fuqua et al., 1996). In Gram-¬positive bacteria small peptides autoinducers, 5¬12 amino acids long, play an active role in communication. These oligopeptides are post--translationally modified by the incorporation of lactone and thiolactone rings, lanthionines and isoprenyl groups. These oligopeptide autoinducers are detected by membrane-¬bound two-¬component signaling proteins, and signal transduction occurs by a phosphorylation cascade (Camilli & Bassler, 2006; More et al., 1996; Novick, 2003; Zhang et al., 2002). In bacteria, the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), and guanosine pentaphosphate and/or tetraphosphate ((p)ppGpp) are well known second messengers, which play important role in relaying extracellular information, but recently cyclic diguanosine monophosphate (c-¬di¬-GMP) is being studied most comprehensively as a nucleotide-¬based second messenger. C-¬di¬-GMP was first discovered in Gluconacetobacter xylinus as a positive allosteric regulator of cellulose synthase (Ross et al., 1987; Tal et al., 1998; Weinhouse et al., 1997). The in vivo level of c-¬di-¬GMP in bacterial cell is maintained by the balance between diguanylate cyclase and phosphodiesterase activities. The GGDEF and EAL amino acids sequence are the signature motif for GGDEF and EAL domain protein within its active site, respectively. The GGDEF domain protein is involved in synthesis of c-¬di-¬GMP and the EAL domain protein is involved in the hydrolysis of c-¬di-¬GMP, and the majority of these proteins contain additional signal input domains (Paul et al., 2004; Ross et al., 1987; Ryjenkov et al., 2005; Tal et al., 1998). M. smegmatis has a single bi-¬functional protein having both the domains, GGDEF and EAL, for the diguanylate cyclase (DGC) and phosphodiesterase (PDE¬A) activities. In addition to GGDEF and EAL domain, one sensory domain, GAF, is also there at the N-terminal of MSMEG_2196 in M. smegmatis. In the present investigation, studies have been carried out to understand the regulation of c-¬di-¬GMP in M. smegmatis at protein and gene level. The entire study on mycobacterial MSMEG_2196 (msdgc¬1) can be broadly divided into five parts; the first part will cover the identification and biochemical characterization of MSDGC¬1 protein, responsible for the regulation of in vivo c-¬di-¬GMP concentration in M. smegmatis, and the presence of GGDEF¬EAL domain containing proteins in various mycobacterial species. The second part will cover the structure function relationship as a function of substrate, GTP and product, c-¬di-GMP, molecule using fluorescence spectroscopy as a tool, and the mutational and structural studies, which leads to the identification of a novel structural motif. The third part will cover the characterization of msdgc¬1 gene knockout and complementation studies in great detail. The fourth part will comprise in vivo and in vitro promoter characterization and regulation of the msdgc¬1 gene under nutritional starvation. The last chapter will cover the characterization of novel synthetic glycolipids, which are working as a growth and biofilm inhibitors in mycobacteria, and can be used as a new drug candidates. Chapter 1 outlines the signal transduction and quorum sensing mechanism, and small molecule signaling modules in brief. The importance of the study started with a brief introduction about the historical aspect of tuberculosis, the current scenario of the treatment of tuberculosis. The urgent need for new drug targets and drugs will be discussed. The important role of the novel second messenger, c-¬di¬-GMP has been explained in greater details in both Gram-¬positive and Gram-¬negative bacteria, and the information available on the different cellular targets has been documented. Chapter 2 describes the identification and biochemical characterization of M. smegmatis MSMEG_2196 protein. The domain architecture and individual domain role have been studied. The MSMEG_2196 proteins consist of three domains, GAF, GGDEF and EAL in tandem, and individual role of each domain has been studied. The diguanylate cyclases containing GGDEF and phosphodiesterases containing EAL domains have been identified as the enzymes involved in the regulation of in vivo cellular concentration of c-¬di-¬GMP. GAF domain has been identified as a metal binding domain in other bacteria and may be playing a role in the regulation of synthesis and hydrolysis activities of c-¬di¬-GMP. The identification, cloning expression and purification of MSMEG_2196 and MSMEG_2774 have been discussed. We have reported that mycobacterial MSDGC¬1 protein has dual activity, which means that it can synthesize and hydrolyse c¬-di-¬GMP; and also full-¬length protein is necessary for its either of the activities. The synthesis and hydrolysis products, c-¬di-¬GMP and pGpG, of MSDGC¬1 protein have been identified and characterized using radiolabelled alpha [α¬32P]GTP and Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI). The effects of temperature and pH on the activities of MSDGC¬1 have been studied. The circular dichroism studies show that the MSDGC¬1 protein is predominantly α¬helical in nature, and secondary structure does not alter upon GTP binding. The kinetic parameters for MSDGC¬1 protein have been calculated as a function of substrate, GTP. The protein, MSDGC¬1, exist as a monomer and a dimer in solution. The MSDGC¬1 protein has four cysteines, and we have shown here using mass spectrometric analysis that none of the cysteines is involved in the disulphide linkage. Chapter 3 deals with the structure-¬function relationship as a function of GTP and c¬-di-GMP molecules using fluorescence spectroscopy as a tool. In order to do so we have generated several cysteine mutants using site directed mutagenesis, and protein was labelled with thiol-¬specific fluorophores. The labelled protein was checked for its DGC and PDE¬A activities and specificity of labelling was confirmed using MALDI and radiometric analysis. The Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) has been carried out to observe domain-¬domain interaction as a function of GTP and c¬-di-¬GMP. The bioinformatics, structural, and mutational analysis suggest that cysteine at 579 position is important for DGC and PDE¬A activities, and may be involved in the formation of a novel structural motif, GCXXXQGF, which is necessary for synthesis and degradation of c-¬di-¬GMP. Chapter 4 describes the construction of a deletion mutation of MSMEG_2196 gene in M. smegmatis. The strategy for the construction of the knockout strain has been shown and confirmation of the knockout event has been carried out using PCR and Southern hybridization. The effect of deletion of msdgc¬1 has been studied in great detail, and it was noticed that biofilm formation is not affected, but long-¬term survival is significantly compromised. It is hypothesized here that c-¬di¬-GMP is involved in the regulation of cell population density in mycobacteria. We have successfully detected the c-¬di¬-GMP in the total nucleotide extract using HLPC coupled with MALDI, and we have shown here that level of c-¬di-¬GMP increases many fold in the stationary phase of growth under nutritional starvation. Chapter 5 deals with the identification and characterization of the promoter element of msdgc¬1 in M. smegmatis. The study was undertaken to understand the mechanism of regulation at promoter level. We have observed here that msdgc¬1 promoter is starvation induced, and expression of msdgc¬1 increases many fold in the stationary phase under nutritional starvation. We have also tried to establish the link between the ppGpp and c-di¬-GMP signalling, and possible role of c-¬di-¬GMP in the regulation of cell population density have been discussed. Further, the +1 transcription start site has been identified using primer extension method. The putative ¬10 hexamer region for the RNA polymerase binding has been identified and confirmed using site-¬directed mutagenesis. It was found to be TCGATA, which is 14 bp upstream from the +1 transcription start site. The msdgc-1 promoter is specific for mycobacteria and does not function in E. coli. Moreover, we have identified the sigma factors, which regulate the msdgc¬1 promoter in growth phase dependent manner. Chapter 6 begins with the screening of synthetic glycolipids as a novel drug candidate. The different glycolipids have been tested for their effect on growth, biofilm formation, and sliding motility of M. smegmatis, and we have screened few of them, which were found to be effective in inhibiting the microbial growth, biofilm formation, and sliding motility. Chapter 7 summarizes the work presented in this thesis. Appendix: The protein sequences of MSDGC¬1 and MSDGC¬2, and the multiple sequence alignments of MSDGC¬1 protein have been documented. The FORTRAN program, which was used to calculate spectral overlap integral J, and the diagrams of the plasmids used in this study have been provided.

Les N-acyl homosérine lactones sont des molécules du quorum sensing impliquées dans la communication interbactérienne mais elles sont également capables d'intéragir avec les cellules eucaryotes. Rechercher ces molécules dans le contexte des maladies inflammatoires chroniques intestinlaes (MICI) et plus particulièrement dans le cadre de l'étude des conséquences de la dysbiose sur les voies de l'inflammation intestinale est séduisant. En utilisant la spectrométrie de mase, nous avons mis en évidence pour la première fois des AHLs dans l'écosystème intestinal humain, et plus particulièrement une nouvelle AHL, 3-oxo-C12 :2, qui est prédominante. Cette AHL est corrélée à la normobiose, est perdue au cours des MICI et exerce un effet protecteur sur les cellules épithéliales intestinales. En effet, la 3-oxo-C12 :2 exerce un effet anti-inflammatoire in vitro sur les cellules Caco-2 sans augmenter la perméabilité paracellulaire. De plus, les premiers résultats in vivo montrent que la 3-oxo-C12 est également capable d'influencer la composition du microbiote intestinal des souris. Ces résultats ouvrent de nombreuses perspectives notamment dans la recherche de traitements écologiques au cours des MICI. / Quorum sensing molecules N-acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs) involved in bacterial communication network are also able to interact with eukaryotic cells. Searching for these molecules in the context of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and more precisely when studying consequences of dysbiosis on gut inflammation pathways is appealing. Using mass spectrometry, we identified for the first time AHLs in human intestinal ecosystem, and among them a new AHL, 3-oxo-C12:2 which is prominent. This AHL correlates with normobiosis, is lost IBD and exerts protective effect on gut epithelial cells. In fact, 3-oxo-C12:2 exerts anti-inflammatory effect in vitro on Caco-2 cells without increased paracellular permeability. Furthermore, first results from in vivo experiments show that 3-oxo-C12:2 is also able to influence mice gut microbiota composition. These results open multiple perspectives especially on new ecological treatments in IBD.

A Clorose Variegada dos Citros (CVC), doença que causa graves prejuízos à citricultura no estado de São Paulo, é causada pela bactéria Xylella fastidiosa que é transmitida pelas cigarrinhas Bucephalogonia xanthophis (Berg), Dilobopterus costalimai (Young), Acrogonia citrina (Marucci & Cavichioli) e Oncometopia facialis (Signoret). Durante a alimentação em plantas afetadas, esses insetos adquirem a bactéria, que coloniza o pré-cibário e o cibário, e depois são capazes de transmitir a doença para plantas sadias. Colonizando o xilema das plantas de citros encontram-se também bactérias endofíticas, que são microrganismos capazes de colonizar internamente tecidos de plantas sem causar dano aparente, e que podem interagir com patógenos no interior do hospedeiro. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a comunidade bacteriana associada as cigarrinhas vetoras de CVC, e observar as possíveis interações que ocorrem entre insetos vetores de X. fastidiosa e bactérias endofíticas de citros. Primeiramente foi feito um isolamento das bactérias da cabeça de cigarrinhas coletadas em pomares de citros afetados com CVC. Foram isoladas um total de 17230 bactérias de três espécies de cigarrinhas (O. facialis, D. costalimai e A. citrina) em três datas diferentes (22/março, 05/maio e 14/junho de 2002), que foram primeiramente classificadas em 9 grupos morfológicos. Do total, 120 bactérias representantes foram avaliadas por ARDRA e classificadas em 16 haplótipos, dos quais alguns foram identificados, por seqüenciamento da região 16S do rDNA, como Methylobacterium sp. e Curtobacterium sp., que são bactérias endofíticas de citros já descritas e que interagem com X. fastidiosa em citros. Primers específicos para estas bactérias foram utilizados para PCRs com o DNA total da cabeça de cigarrinhas e variou de 39,1% a 89,6% nas diferentes espécies. A comunidade bacteriana associada às cigarrinhas foi também avaliada por DGGE e apresentou variações quanto ao inseto hospedeiro e quanto à época das avaliações. Um isolado de M. mesophilicum expressando o gene da proteína verde fluorescente (GFP ? Green Fluorescent Protein) foi utilizado para experimento de transmissão deste endófito por B. xanthophis. Os insetos se alimentaram em membrana contendo a solução da bactéria e depois foram colocados em plantas de Catharanthus roseus. Das plantas, 13% apresentaram a bactéria fluorescente colonizando tecidos endofiticamente, o que indica que a cigarrinha é capaz de transmitir o endófito. Testes para a avaliação da produção de moléculas de quorum sensing (AHLs - Acil Homocerina Lactonas) foram feitos para M. mesophilicum e M. extorquens. Foram ainda desenvolvidos mutantes de M. extorquens, defectivos para a produção de biofilme e AHLs. / The Citrus Variegated Chlorosis (CVC), a very important disease which attacks citrus trees in the state of São Paulo, is caused by the xylem-limited bacteria, Xylella fastidiosa, which is transmitted by four species of sharpshooters (Cicadellidae) Bucephalogonia xanthophis (Berg), Dilobopterus costalimai (Young), Acrogonia citrina (Marucci & Cavichioli) and Oncometopia facialis (Signoret) which are capable of acquiring X. fastidiosa from the xylem while feeding. In plants, endophytic bacteria, which inhabit the interior of aerial plant parts developing an asymptomatic infection and show potential benefits as biocontrol agents of pests and diseases, may colonize the same niche of pathogens, such as X. fastidiosa, what could allow endophytes to interact with the pathogen. Bacteria were isolated from head of insect vectors, collected on affected citrus plants. From 17230 bacteria isolated from the heads of three insect species (O. facialis, D. costalimai and A. citrina) in three different days (22/march, 05/may and 14/june of 2002), 120 bacteria were tested with ARDRA and classified into 16 different haplotypes. The most frequent strains had their 16S rDNA fragment sequenced and they were identified as Methylobacterium sp. and Curtobacterium sp., bacteria which have been described as citrus endophytes which interact with X. fastidiosa. Total DNA of insect heads was used in Nested PCRs for detection of these citrus endophytes in insects. The frequencies of detection ranged from 39,1% to 89,6%. The bacterial community associated to sharpshooters was also evaluated by DGGE and presented variations due to insect host and time of the evaluations. One M. mesophilicum isolate, expressing the GFP (Green Fluorescent Protein), was used to test the transmission of endophytes by B. xanthophis. Insects fed on membranes containing a bacterial solution and after were trapped on Catharanthus roseus. From the evaluated plants, 13% presented the fluorescent protein colonizing endophytically, indicating that the insect is able to transmit the endophytic bacteria. Biofilm and quorum sensing molecules (AHLs - Acyl Homocerine Lactones) production by Methylobacterium sp. were tested, and M. extorquens mutants for both features were produced.

O gênero Methylobacterium é composto por bactérias de coloração rósea, metilotróficas facultativas (PPFM - pink-pigmented facultative methylotrophic), que podem fixar nitrogênio, nodular a planta hospedeira, produzir o fitohormônio citocinina e as enzimas pectinase e celulase, podendo dessa forma promover o crescimento vegetal devido à disponibilidade de nitrogênio e à indução de resistência sistêmica. Methylobacterium spp. têm sido descritas como endófitos ou epífitas em diferentes plantas hospedeiras, onde a sua colonização e distribuição no hospedeiro podem ser influenciadas pelo genótipo da planta ou por interações com outros microrganismos associados ao hospedeiro. Neste contexto, poucos trabalhos têm sido desenvolvidos visando um melhor entendimento da interação Methylobacterium-planta e da diversidade deste gênero bacteriano que tem sido isolado de diferentes plantas hospedeiras, exercendo diferentes funções ainda pouco conhecidas. Portanto, este trabalho tem como objetivo estudar a diversidade genética de Methylobacterium spp., por meio do seqüenciamento parcial dos genes 16S rRNA e mxaF; analisar os genes de responsáveis pela interação da Methylobacterium com a planta hospedeira e analisar os genes envolvidos na interação Methylobacterium (endófito)- Xylella fastidiosa (patógeno). Os resultados mostraram que existe uma resposta adaptativa de Methylobacterium spp. específica para cada planta hospedeira. Da mesma forma, foi observado que esta adaptação específica da bactéria à planta, também pode levar à seleção de genótipos específicos para cada planta hospedeira, embora eventos aleatórios também possam ser responsáveis pela diversidade de Methylobacterium na planta hospedeira. Na análise de expressão gênica da interação Methylobacterium-planta, foi observado que o gene relacionado ao metabolismo do metanol (mxaF) não apresentou mudança no padrão de expressão. Genes relacionados a estresse crtI (estresse sentido pela bactéria) e acdS (estresse sentido pela planta), tiveram suas expressões reduzidas na presença da planta, mostrando que a presença de exsudados das plantas não representou um estresse ao desenvolvimento bacteriano. Os genes relacionados à patogenicidade patatin e phoU não foram alterados, confirmando que Methylobacterium é um endófito, e possuem expressão induzida de tais genes quando interagindo com a planta hospedeira. Os resultados permitem concluir que nas condições avaliadas os exsudados das plantas não causam estresse à bactéria (SR1.6/6). Por meio da análise de expressão gênica in vitro de X. fastidiosa em co-cultivo com M. mesophilicum, foi observado que este fitopatógeno vascular apresentou diminuição do crescimento e da formação de biofilme. Os resultados aqui apresentados mostram que a diversidade deste grupo de endófitos é parcialmente determinada pela planta hospedeira, onde tais bactérias interagem tanto com a planta como com outros grupos, como fitopatógenos presentes neste nicho. / The genus Methylobacterium, constituted by PPFMs - pink-pigmented facultative methylotrophic, are able to fix nitrogen, nodule the host plant, produce cytokines and enzymes involved in induction of systemic resistance such as pectinase and cellulase, inducing plant growth. Methylobacterium sp. has been described as endophyte or epiphyte in different host plants, where the colonization and distribution on the host can be influenced by plant genotype or by interaction with other microorganisms associated to the host. In this context, few studies aims the better understanding of the diversity of this genus in different host, the interaction Methylobacterium-plant, and the interaction Methylobacterium-other bacteria. Therefore, this study aims to study the genetic diversity of Methylobacterium spp., by sequencing the 16S rRNA and mxaF gene; to analyze the genes responsible for the Methylobacterium-plant host interaction and to analyze the genes involved in Methylobacterium (endophyte) - Xylella fastidiosa (pathogen) interaction. Results show differential adaptive responses of Methylobacterium spp. in distinct plant species. However, the clustering according to the host plant was observed for a subset of isolates, suggesting that this diversity could be driven by stochastic events, although plant genotype may contribute to this diversity. Analyzing the Methylobacterium-plant interaction gene expression it was observed that genes related to metabolism of methanol (mxaF) was not amended. The genes related to stress such as crtI (stress sensed by the bacteria) and acdS (stress sensed by the plant) had its expression reduced with the plant showing that the plant exudates did not represent a stress to the bacteria development. The genes related to pathogenicity like patatin and phoU were not amended, confirming that Methylobacterium is an endophyte that do not induce when the bacteria interacts with the plant host. Using a genetic expression analyses of X. fastidiosa in vitro in co-cultive with M. mesophilicum, it was seen that this phytopathogen presented the growth and biofilm formation reduction. These results show that the diversity of this endophyte group is partially determinate by the plant host, where this bacterium interacts with the plant and with other groups, such as phytopathogen present in this niche.

The individual behaviour of prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria often gives rise to complexity that is commonly associated with multicellular behaviour. The transition from unicellular to multicellular behaviour occurs in response to chemical signals, called autoinducers, which bacteria generate and receive internally within a given population. These autoinducers control the gene expression necessary for the emergence of group-behaviour-phenotype. This phenomenon is called quorum sensing (QS). An example of the quorum sensing control of gene regulation has been the luminescence (lux) operon in Vibrio fischeri. The luxI and ainS quorum signalling systems work in conjunction to regulate luminescence in V. fischeri. LuxI and AinS are acyl-synthases that catalyse the production of the autoinducers C6-HSL and C8-HSL respectively. These autoinducers bind to LuxR, a transcriptional activator of the lux operon, which activates expression of the lux genes causing an increase in luminescence. It was shown that quorum signalling also affects motility and biofilm formation in bacteria. However, the evidence with respect to these phenotypes is conflicting and inconclusive, the reason being the state of quorum is ambiguously defined. It is not properly known whether the observed collective behaviour is purely a result of physical crowding of bacteria, or that both chemical signalling and crowding contribute to this phenomenon. This work attempts to address these issues by studying luminescence, motility, and biofilm, a diverse set of behaviours, yet closely linked to each other in V. fischeri-squid symbiosis. We studied the luminescence response of V. fischeri to both endogenous and externally added signals at per-cell and population level. Experiments with ES114, a wild-type strain of V. fischeri, and ainS mutant showed that (i) luminescence per cell does not mutually correlate with the cell-density, indicating that bacteria do not show greater response to the signal at higher densities; (ii) the activity of the lux signalling circuit shows a strong dependence on the growth stage, (iii) the cells do not show enhanced growth, i.e., they do not derive fitness benefits at higher densities in response to the signal. We anticipated that the culture with a higher cell-density should exhibit greater per-cell-luminescence. However, we found that the luminescence curve of the culture with lower density crosses that of the cultures with higher densities during the exponential phase. Kinetic modelling of the luxI mRNA expression showed that the expression profile qualitatively agrees with the luminescence trend observed in the cultures, supporting the observation that growth-phase plays a major role in regulating the luminescence gene expression. We also studied the effect of autoinducers on motility of V. fischeri. V. fischeri uses flagella to move into the inner crypts of the light organ of the squid. The bacterium secretes autoinducers, encounters secretions of the light organ, and slows down during the final stage of colonization process. Studies have shown that flagellar elaboration is repressed as a consequence of ainS signalling. However, those studies were soft-agar migration assays and carried out with the mutant strain of ainS. We measured real-time planktonic motility of ES114 and the signalling mutant strains of V. fischeri in response to autoinducers added exogenously at different concentrations. We found that the autoinducers do not affect the motility of the strains. We also showed that reduction in motility is purely a consequence of physical crowding of bacteria, and chemical signalling may not be involved in the process. It was shown that reduction in motility leads to biofilm formation. Motile bacteria must lose flagella in order to form biofilm, and signalling controls biofilm formation in many species. Our study on motility showed that reduction in motility occurs because of physical crowding in V. fischeri. Hence, we explored the possibility that physical crowding might lead to formation of biofilm rather than signalling in this species. We quantified exopolysaccharide production by crystal violet assay, which revealed that planktonic cells produce exopolysaccharides, in addition to biofilm cells. The study revealed that V. fischeri cells always produce exopolysaccharides irrespective of their physiological state. We examined the effect of signalling on biofilm in ES114 and the mutant strains using gene-expression analysis. We quantified the expression of various genes involved in biofilm formation and found that both ES114 and the mutants expressed rscS and sypP indicating that exopolysaccharide production is not under the control of autoinducers. Therefore, we hypothesized that biofilm formation in V. fischeri may be a result of physical agglomeration of cells. Our observations indicate that the state of quorum is inadequately defined and there is no direct measure of the underlying process. Multicellular behaviour in V. fischeri is regulated by a complex interplay of cell-density, signalling, and other factors such as the growth phase of the culture, indicating that the state of quorum employs different mechanisms to regulate various phenotypes. Our study reveals that QS is an intricate process, and the accepted mechanisms for QS are incomplete at best.

Les voies respiratoires des patients atteints de mucoviscidose sont colonisées par de nombreux pathogènes, parmi lesquels la bactérie P. aeruginosa est prédominante. Après des épisodes répétés d’infections du tractus respiratoire principalement liées à P. aeruginosa, les patients développent une insuffisance pulmonaire associée à un déclin du statut clinique et à une aggravation du pronostic puisqu’elle est souvent responsable du décès de ces patients. Les infections chroniques à P. aeruginosa affectent 80 à 90 % des patients atteints de mucoviscidose et, une fois ces infections installées, les associations actuelles d’antibiotiques sont incapables d’éradiquer la bactérie des voies aériennes de ces patients. La chronicité des infections est liée au développement de la bactérie sous un mode de vie particulier, le biofilm. Les bactéries s’assemblent en communautés complexes et organisées, entourées par la sécrétion d’une matrice extracellulaire polymérique. Ce mode de vie procure aux bactéries présentes dans le biofilm un environnement dense et protecteur, augmentant la résistance du pathogène au système immunitaire de l’hôte et aux antibiotiques conventionnels. <p><p>Dans la première partie de notre travail, nous avons caractérisé différentes souches de P. aeruginosa, comprenant des souches de référence et des souches cliniques isolées des expectorations de patients atteints de mucoviscidose. Les propriétés d’adhésion, de développement des biofilms, de mobilité, de production de rhamnolipides, l’activité protéolytique et la production d’acylhomosérine lactones se sont avérées très différentes au sein des souches. De plus, les caractéristiques phénotypiques des souches ne constituaient pas une valeur prédictive de la sensibilité des bactéries à un antibiotique, soulignant la nécessité d’étudier un panel large de souches pour caractériser l’effet d’un agent antimicrobien.<p><p>Dans la lutte pour combattre les infections et l’apparition de souches multirésistantes, de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques sont développées. Les céragenines sont une famille de molécules synthétisées dans le but de mimer la structure amphipatique des peptides antimicrobiens responsable de leur activité bactéricide importante. Contrairement à ces derniers, les céragenines maintiennent leur activité dans des conditions physiologiques. <p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p>Dans la deuxième partie de ce travail, nous avons étudié l’effet d’un composé antimicrobien appartenant à la famille des céragenines, le CSA-13, sur les différentes souches de P. aeruginosa. Nous avons confirmé le potentiel bactéricide du CSA-13 sur des cultures planctoniques de P. aeruginosa. Nous avons démontré qu’une concentration très faible et non cytotoxique de CSA-13 (10 fois inférieure à la CMI), inhibait la formation d’un biofilm de 3 souches de P. aeruginosa sur les 8 testées. L’étude du potentiel zêta des souches nous a permis de proposer un mécanisme basé sur des interactions électrostatiques pour expliquer l’action préventive du CSA-13 sur le développement du biofilm. Une concentration plus importante de CSA-13 a éradiqué l’entièreté d’un biofilm âgé de 24 h pour 7 des 8 souches étudiées. Six souches ont été évaluées dans un biofilm mature et toutes ont répondu au composé avec des concentrations croissantes ou un temps d’exposition du composé au biofilm plus important. Aucune résistance au CSA-13 n’est apparue durant le traitement. L’usage de la microscopie confocale à balayage laser a confirmé la rapidité et l’efficacité d’action du CSA-13 sur un biofilm robuste et complexe de P. aeruginosa par visualisation dans le temps et dans l’espace de l’effet du CSA-13 sur le biofilm. L’ensemble des observations de ce travail nous a permis de conclure que 7 sur les 8 souches de P. aeruginosa étaient sensibles au CSA-13, soit à un stade initial de la formation du biofilm, soit après maturation du biofilm. Ces résultats soulignent le potentiel thérapeutique important, envers tous les stades de formation et de développement du biofilm, de composés à structure amphiphile comme le CSA-13, avec une face cationique favorisant les interactions avec les membranes bactériennes chargées négativement et une face hydrophobe contribuant à la perturbation de ces membranes. <p><p>Le traitement de référence actuel envers les infections à P. aeruginosa, chez les patients souffrant de mucoviscidose, consiste en l’administration par inhalation de tobramycine commercialisée sous le médicament TOBI®. Nous avons investigué l’intérêt d’une administration combinée de l’aminoglycoside avec le CSA-13. Un bénéfice évident de la combinaison de CSA-13 et de tobramycine est apparu dans cette étude aussi bien sur biofilm jeune que mature. Dans certaines conditions, le CSA-13 semblait même prévenir la résistance à la tobramycine. Il sera cependant indispensable de concevoir des expériences in vivo pour confirmer l’intérêt du CSA-13 ou d’une co-administration de CSA-13 et de la tobramycine dans le traitement d’infections chroniques à P. aeruginosa chez des patients atteints de mucoviscidose.<p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p>Nos études in vitro sur cellules eucaryotes humaines ont mis en évidence une toxicité membranaire et mitochondriale provoquée par le CSA-13 lors de l’administration de concentrations importantes. L’association du CSA-13 avec l’acide pluronique F-127 a permis de réduire significativement la toxicité du composé sur les membranes. Cependant, l’association n’a pas diminué les effets délétères exercés par le CSA-13 sur l’activité mitochondriale. Les études devront donc se poursuivre afin d’affiner la compréhension du mécanisme d’action des céragenines et de pouvoir déceler des dérivés moins toxiques. L’évaluation de l’activité in vivo du composé devrait nous éclairer quant à la fenêtre thérapeutique utilisable en clinique.<p><p>\ / Doctorat en Sciences biomédicales et pharmaceutiques / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Quorum sensing molecules have become a recent focus of study to learn if and how they can be used, both on their own and in conjecture with current antimicrobial methods, as a means of bacterial control. One such quorum sensing molecule is the sesquiterpene alcohol, Farnesol, which is synthesized and released by the fungus, Candida albicans. In most in-vivo cases, our laboratory has shown that Alcaligenes faecalis overtakes C. albicans, preventing its growth. However, as a way to counteract this inhibitory effect, Farnesol may be one way that Candida has found to fight back. In this study, we focused on the inhibitory properties of Farnesol for growth and motility of A. faecalis, as well as, the molecule’s ability to prevent Alcaligenes from creating biofilms and/or degrading them once they have already been established. Our experiments show evidence that Farnesol is able to inhibit both the growth and motility of A. faecalis, and determination of the specific concentrations of Farnesol needed to see the largest effects on A. faecalis biofilms. Our hope is that in future studies, we will be able to add varying concentrations of the Farnesol to known and widely used antibiotics in order to increase the effectiveness of antibiotics against bacterial strains, both in the Alcaligenes genus and in other genus, that have previously been considered “antibiotic resistant”.

No description available.