A demanda por energia fotovoltaica vem aumentando a razão de mais de 20% ao ano no mercado internacional nos últimos dez anos. O silício com pureza entre 99,999% e 99,99999% é utilizado na fabricação de células fotovoltaicas. O silício metalúrgico tem pureza entre 98,5% e 99%. Este estudo visa investigar o refino a vácuo como um processo alternativo de menor custo para se obter o silício para células fotovoltaicas. Este processo pode remover o fósforo do silício, que é um dos elementos prejudiciais à célula fotovoltaica. Isso permitiria agregar valor à produção brasileira de silício metalúrgico, que alcança um preço de aproximadamente US$2,5 por quilo, enquanto o silício para células fotovoltaicas varia entre US$20 e 60 por quilo. Foram realizados experimentos de fusão em forno de indução a vácuo, variando parâmetros como temperatura, tempo e pressão. O teor de fósforo caiu de 33 ppm para cerca de 0,1 ppm e os resultados foram comparados com um modelo matemático da literatura. Conclui-se que o refino por este processo é tecnicamente viável. / The demand for photovoltaics is increasing at a ratio over 20 % per year in the international market in the last ten years. Silicon with purity of 99.999 % and 99.99999 % is used in the manufacture of photovoltaic cells. The purity of metallurgical silicon is between 98.5% and 99%. This study aims to investigate the vacuum refining process as a lower cost alternative to obtain silicon for photovoltaic cells. This process can remove phosphorus from silicon, which is a harmful element to the photovoltaic cell. This would add value to Brazilian production of metallurgical silicon, that reaches a price of approximately U.S.$ 2.5 per kilogram, while the silicon for photovoltaic cells varies between U.S.$ 20 and 60 per kilo . Melting experiments were performed in a vacuum induction furnace by varying such parameters as temperature, time and pressure. The phosphorus content dropped from 33 ppm to about 0.1 ppm and the results were compared with a mathematical model from literature. It is concluded that refining of this process is technically feasible.

Novas rotas para obtenção de silício grau solar a partir de silício grau metalúrgico estão em desenvolvimento e a solidificação direcional é uma etapa presente em todos os processos propostos. O refino de silício por solidificação direcional baseia-se no fenômeno de macrossegregação das impurezas. Experimentos de solidificação direcional transiente foram realizados em condições estáticas utilizando um equipamento projetado no âmbito desse trabalho. A partir de um experimento de referência, foram avaliadas as influências da alteração do material da base do cadinho, altura do lingote e condição de resfriamento do forno. Para estudo das condições de solidificação e dos mecanismos envolvidos no fenômeno de macrossegregação de solutos foi proposto e implementado um modelo matemático. Esse modelo considera as equações gerais de transporte no caso unidirecional e o transporte de espécies químicas por difusão macroscópica e convecção. A convecção foi tratada a luz da teoria da camada estagnada a frente da interface sólido-líquido. Variáveis como velocidade da interface sólido-líquido, gradiente de temperatura, perfis de concentração de soluto e de fração de sólido foram obtidos com o modelo matemático utilizando as temperaturas medidas no silício durante os experimentos de solidificação como condições de contorno do modelo. Os resultados experimentais mostraram que sob algumas condições foram obtidos lingotes com macroestrutura típica de solidificação unidirecional e, além disso, as microestruturas mostraram evidências de macrossegregação de solutos. Os resultados do modelo matemático mostraram que a solidificação ocorreu em diferentes condições de velocidade da interface sólido-líquido e gradiente de temperatura nos experimentos. Os resultados obtidos com a utilização do modelo matemático mostraram que a convecção teve papel fundamental no fenômeno de macrossegregação de solutos. / New process routes are under development to obtain solar grade silicon from metallurgical grade one, and the directional solidification is an essential step in all proposed process routes. The silicon refining by directional solidification is based on the impurities macrosegregation phenomena. Transient solidification experiments were conducted under a static condition in a furnace projected for this work. From a reference experiment it was analyzed the effects of the changing the material of the crucible base, the ingot height and the cooling condition of the furnace. A mathematical model was proposed and implemented in order to study the solidification conditions and the main mechanisms regarding the macrosegregation phenomena. The mathematical model considers the conservation equations in one direction and the transport of chemical species occurs by diffusion and convection. The convection was treated using the diffusion layer theory. The velocity of solid-liquid interface, temperature gradient and profiles of solute concentration and solid fraction were obtained using the temperatures on silicon during the solidification experiments as boundaries conditions of the model. The experimental results showed that under some conditions it was obtained ingots with typical unidirectional macrostructure and, besides, showed in the microstructure evidences of macrosegregation. The mathematical model results showed that the solidification took place under different conditions of solid-liquid interface velocities and temperature gradient in the experiments. The results from the mathematical model showed that convection plays an essential role in the macrosegregation phenomena.

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar os efeitos de celulases comerciais na superfície de fibras celulósicas branqueadas de eucalipto, bem como o impacto destes efeitos durante o refino. Após tratamento enzimático realizado em laboratório sob condições controladas, as polpas de fibra seca foram submetidas a refino em moinho PFI em vários níveis de energia e os resultados foram avaliados por meio dos ensaios físico-mecânicos realizados em folhas manuais formadas em laboratório e ensaios de morfologia de fibra, que tinham como objetivo evidenciar alguns efeitos provocados pelas enzimas utilizadas como auxiliar de refino. As análises dos dados obtidos mostraram que para a fibra seca tratada com produto denominado Maxymize 2530, foi possível obter valores 31% maiores de resistência à tração e 21% maiores de resistência interna (Scott Bond), valores estes sem refino mecânico. Estes valores foram similares aos encontrados para a fibra nunca seca, o que mostrou que a enzima pôde compensar o efeito \"Hornification\" causado pelo processo de secagem da fibra. Para a fibra seca pré-tratada com celulase e refinada em moinho PFI, foi possível obter um valor de Scott Bond de 100 lb.ft/in² com um consumo específico de energia 36% menor quando comparado com a fibra seca refinada em moinho PFI sem pré-tratamento enzimático. O mesmo aconteceu para os valores de resistência a tração, onde se obteve um valor de 70 kNm/kg com consumo específico de energia 57% menor. O planejamento experimental realizado contribuiu para a otimização de dosagem e variáveis do pré-tratamento enzimático, e com isso tornou possível a viabilização financeira da aplicação de celulases como auxiliar de refino. Todos os resultados foram ilustrados por imagens de Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura (MEV), que evidenciou o aumento do nível de fibrilação externa das fibras tratadas com enzimas. / This study aimed to evaluate the effects of commercial cellulases on the surface of bleached eucalyptus fibers, as well as the impact of these effects during refining. After enzymatic treatment performed in the laboratory under controlled conditions, the dried pulps were subjected to refining in PFI mill at various energy levels and the results were evaluated by physical-mechanical tests performed on handsheets formed in laboratory and morphology fiber tests, which were intended to show some effects caused by the enzymes used as an aid to refining. The data analysis showed that for the dry fiber treated with compound Maxymize 2530, it was possible to obtain values 31% higher tensile strength and 21% higher Scott Bond test, these values without mechanical refining. These values are similar to those found for the never dried fiber, which showed that the enzyme could compensate the \"Hornification\" caused by the drying process of the fiber. To the dried fiber pre-treated with cellulase and refined in a PFI mill, it was possible to obtain a value of Scott Bond 100 lb.ft /in² with a specific energy consumption was 36% lower when compared to the dried fiber refined in a PFI mill without pre -enzymatic treatment. The same happened to the values of tensile strength, which presented a value of 70 kNm/kg with a specific energy consumption with 57% lower. The experimental design carried out contributed to the optimization of dosage and variables of enzymatic pre-treatment, and thereby made possible the financial feasibility of the application of cellulases as an aid to refining. All results are illustrated by images of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), which showed an increase in the level of external fibrillation of fibers treated with enzymes.

Orientador: Maria Regina Wolf Maciel / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Quimica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-12T12:30:40Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Maia_JulioPereira_M.pdf: 1976654 bytes, checksum: 7db1c6ceb65b53e42be6af7e578eb0f0 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007 / Resumo: Unidades de vácuo para destilação de petróleo são estudadas neste trabalho. A destilação a vácuo é empregada para frações pesadas do petróleo, com vastas aplicações em processamento de crus pesados e ultra-pesados, motivado pelas dificuldades em se processar estes crus a pressão atmosférica devido ao alto ponto de ebulição dos componentes em suas composições. Estes compostos podem ser facilmente decompostos se não forem destilados abaixo da pressão atmosférica. Os produtos obtidos desta unidade são usados como insumos para a Unidade de Craqueamento Catalítico (UCC). Adotaram-se dois tipos de crus neste trabalho. Estes crus foram estabelecidos e caracterizados em um ambiente de simulação. Diferentes blends dos óleos foram considerados. Como unidades de vácuo estão conectadas com unidades atmosféricas, ambas as unidades foram simuladas no estado estacionário. A unidade atmosférica foi simulada com os equipamentos auxiliares principais. Produtos da unidade atmosférica foram determinados, e procedimentos para ajustar as variáveis de sistema de forma a fazer com que os produtos estivessem especificados foram apresentados. O projeto convencional de unidade de vácuo para produção de combustíveis foi o adotado para a simulação. Procedimentos para auxiliar a convergência da simulação desta unidade foram desenvolvidos. Uma análise de sensitividade foi conduzida, analisando as principais variáveis do sistema. Baseado nisso, um procedimento de otimização no estado estacionário foi adotado, levando em consideração os limites de convergência determinados para a análise de sensitividade. O sistema foi convertido do estado estacionário para se realizar uma simulação dinâmica. A simulação dinâmica foi conduzida com mudanças no fluxo de alimentação da torre atmosférica. O estabelecimento desta plataforma de simulação e sua disponibilidade foram muito importantes, bem como os resultados da simulação, por não ser facilmente encontrado na literatura aberta. Mais ainda, a grande complexidade deste processo de separação faz com que seja útil para treinamento de operadores. / Abstract: Vacuum units for petroleum distillation are studied in this work. Vacuum distillation is employed for heavy petroleum fractions, with large applications on heavy and ultra-heavy crude processing, motivated by difficulties in processing these crudes at atmospheric pressure, due to the boiling range of the compounds in their compositions. These compounds would be easily decomposed if they were not distillated under atmospheric pressure. The products obtained from this unit are used as feedstock for Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit (FCCU). Two different petroleum crudes were adopted in this work. These petroleum were established and characterized in a simulation environment. Different blends from the oils were considered. As vacuum units in petroleum plants are connected with atmospheric units, both units were simulated in steady state. The atmospheric unit was simulated with the main auxiliary equipment. Products from atmospheric unit were set, and a procedure to set system variables in order to make the products to meet specifications was presented. The conventional design vacuum unit for fuels production was set to be simulated. Procedures to aim convergence of the simulation of this unit were developed. A sensitivity analysis was carried out, analyzing the main variables of the system. Based on it, an optimization procedure in steady state was applied, taking into consideration the convergence bounds set for the sensitivity analysis. The system was converted from steady state to perform a dynamic simulation. The dynamic simulation was carried out with changes in the atmospheric feed flow rate. The establishment of this simulation platform and its availability were very important as well as the results of the simulation, since this is not easily found in the open literature. Moreover, the large complexity of this separation process makes it useful for operator training. / Mestrado / Desenvolvimento de Processos Químicos / Mestre em Engenharia Química

Submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements for the Master's Diploma of Technology: Chemistry, M. L. Sultan Technikon, 1992. / 2- Vinylfuran has been synthesised from furan, obtained from furfural a degradation product of bagasse, and has the potential to be used as a monomer in the Polymer Industry. Furan was successfully reacted with ethylene under catalytic conditions of palladium (II) acetate and copper (II) acetate to produce 2-vinylfuran, via a direct substitution reaction, at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 9Y C for two hours in dimethylformamide. / M

Air quality legislation in South Africa is entering a transformation phase, shifting the concept of atmospheric emission control towards pollution prevention and emission minimisation through a more integrated approach. This transformation, along with public pressure and increased foreign trade, is providing industries with incentives to consider their effect on the environment and to take action where required. To assist South African industries in determining what air pollution control technologies are best suited to power plants, gasification and refining processes in South Africa; an assessment of air pollution control technologies used in other countries was carried out. This assessment concluded that the best available technologies for power plants to control air emissions are electrostatic precipitators, low-NOx burners, selective catalytic reduction systems and wet flue gas desulphurisation (limestone) systems. For gasification processes it was found that the main air pollution contributor is the gas handling and treatment process. Releases from this process are controlled through dust collection, wet scrubbing, conversion of sulphide compounds, sulphur recovery and the incineration of final vent gases before release to the atmosphere. For refining processes the catalytic cracking unit is normally the largest single air emission source and controlling emissions from this unit avoids controlling multiple minor sources. Emissions from this unit are controlled via wet scrubbing, selective catalytic reduction systems and carbon monoxide boilers. An assessment of the financial effects associated with air pollution control at power plants was conducted by completing a cost analysis. This analysis demonstrated that by increasing capital expenditure on control technologies by R 1,7 billion, the external costs associated with producing electricity can be reduced by almost R 3,4 billion. Formulation of external cost factors for South African conditions, and the development of a software database for the information obtained from the different countries, will promote future technology selections. / Dissertation (MASTER OF ENGINEERING(Environmental Engineering))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Chemical Engineering / unrestricted

The process of precious metal refining can be up to 99.99% efficient at best, and although it may seem small, the amount of valuable metal lost to waste streams is appreciable enough to warrant recovery. The method currently used to remove entrained metal ions from refinery wastewaters, chemical precipitation, is not an effective means for selective recovery of precious metals from a wastewater. Biosorption, the ability of certain types of biomass to bind and concentrate metals from even very dilute aqueous solutions, may be an effective point-source metal recovery strategy. The yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, has been found capable of sorbing numerous precious and base metals, and is a cheap and abundant source of biomass. As such, it represents a possible precious metal sorbent for application to refining wastewaters. In this investigation, S. cerevisiae biomass was immobilized, using polyethyleneimine and glutaraldehyde, to produce a suitable sorbent, which was found to be capable of high platinum uptake (150 to 170 mg/g) at low pH (< 2). The sorption mechanism was elucidated and found to be a chemical reaction, which made effective desorption impossible. The sorption process was investigated in a packed bed column conformation, the results of which showed that the diameter and height of the column require further optimization in order to attain the metal uptake values achieved in the batch studies. When applied to a refinery wastewater, two key wastewater characteristics limited the success of the sorption process; the high inorganic ion content and the complex speciation of the platinum ions. The results proved the concept principle of platinum recovery by immobilized yeast biosorption and indicated that a more detailed understanding of the platinum speciation within the wastewater is required before the biosorption process can be applied. Overall, the sorption of platinum by the S. cerevisiae sorbent was demonstrated to be highly effective in principle, but the complexity of the wastewater requires that pretreatment steps be taken before the successful application of this process to an industrial wastewater.

L'objectif de ce travail est d'améliorer l'activation de catalyseurs d'hydrotraitement CoMo/Al2O3 régénérés par l'emploi d'un nouvel additif organique, l'acide maléïque. En effet, le procédé de régénération permet la réutilisation d'un catalyseur d'hydrotraitement ayant subi une désactivation en éliminant les impuretés carbonées et en redispersant la phase active à la surface du catalyseur. Ce procédé ne permet cependant pas de retrouver l'activité initiale d'un catalyseur neuf. L'emploi d'additif organique lors de la préparation de catalyseurs régénérés permet alors d'améliorer l'activité catalytique. Au cours de ce travail, l'influence de l'acide maléïque a été étudiée à chaque étape du processus d'activation d'un catalyseur d'hydrotraitement régénéré. A l'état oxyde, l'acide maléïque n'influence pas la formation d'aluminate de cobalt tandis que cet additif consomme la phase CoMoO4 néfaste à l'activité finale dès maturation à 30°C. Cette consommation de la phase CoMoO4 s'accompagne de la formation de maléate de cobalt. Des études complémentaires menées par extraction des espèces oxydes suite à l'interaction du catalyseur régénéré avec l'acide maléïque en solution aqueuse montrent également une redispersion du molybdène sous forme d'un sel d'Anderson, AlMo6. Cette redispersion permet de sulfurer rapidement le molybdène dès 150°C tandis que le cobalt tend à se sulfurer progressivement avant décomposition du maléate. La décomposition complète du maléate de cobalt à 350°C permet alors de libérer le cobalt afin que celui-ci interagisse efficacement avec le sulfure de molybdène déjà formé conduisant à une proportion élevée en phase promue / The objective of this study is to improve the activation of regenerated CoMo/Al2O3 hydrotreating catalysts through the use of a novel organic additive, maleic acid. The regeneration process allows to re-use hydrotreating catalysts that have been deactivated leading to the removal of carbon impurities and to the redispersion of the active at the catalyst surface. However, using this process, the regenerated catalyst cannot recover completely the activity of a fresh catalyst. The use of organic additives during the preparation of regenerated catalysts can improve the final catalytic activity. In this work, the influence of maleic acid has been studied at each step of the activation procedure of a regenerated hydrotreating catalyst. At the oxide state, maleic acid does not influence the formation of cobalt aluminate while after maturation at 30°C, this additive can consume the CoMoO4 phase known to be detrimental to the activity. This disappearance of the CoMoO4 phase is accompanied by the formation of cobalt maleate. Complementary studies based on the extraction of oxide species through the interaction of the regenerated catalyst with maleic acid in aqueous solution also evidence the redispersion of molybdenum as AlMo6 Anderson salt species. This redispersion allows to rapidly sulphide molybdenum as soon as 150°C while cobalt is progressively sulphided before the maleate decomposition. The complete decomposition of cobalt maleate at 350°C makes cobalt available to interact efficiently with the already formed molybdenum sulphide leading to a high proportion of promoted phase

No description available.

This diploma thesis is a study of the potential of heat transfer enhancement in the process of hydrogenation refining of oil. The simulation of the process and the heat-hydraulic analysis of the heat exchanger network are performed using the software tools. Based on the obtained results and the results of the optimization study, a new heat exchanger is placed in the process and its parameters are subject to further calculations. The aim is to study the possibilities of heat transfer enhancement for the newly used heat exchanger and to discuss aspects connected with the use of selected software.