A study of heat transfer and pressure drop in zero ozone-depletion-potential (ODP) ‎refrigerant blends in small diameter tubes was conducted. The azeotropic refrigerant ‎blend R410A (equal parts of R32 and R125 by mass) has zero ODP and has properties ‎similar to R22, and is therefore of interest for vapor compression cycles in high-‎temperature-lift space-conditioning and water heating applications. Smaller tubes lead to ‎higher heat transfer coefficients and are better suited for high operating pressures.‎ Heat transfer coefficients and pressure drops for R410A were determined experimentally ‎during condensation across the entire vapor-liquid dome at 0.8, 0.9xPcritical and gas ‎cooling at 1.0, 1.1, 1.2xPcritical in three different round tubes (D = 3.05, 1.52, 0.76 mm) ‎over a mass flux range of 200 < G < 800 kg/m2-s. A thermal amplification technique was ‎used to accurately determine the heat duty for condensation in small quality increments ‎or supercritical cooling across small temperature changes while ensuring low ‎uncertainties in the refrigerant heat transfer coefficients. ‎ The data from this study were used in conjunction with data obtained under similar ‎operating conditions for refrigerants R404A and R410A in tubes of diameter 6.22 and ‎‎9.40 mm to develop models to predict heat transfer and pressure drop in tubes with ‎diameters ranging from 0.76 to 9.40 mm during condensation. Similarly, in the ‎supercritical states, heat transfer and pressure drop models were developed to account for ‎the sharp variations in the thermophysical properties near the critical point.‎ The physical understanding and models resulting from this investigation provide the ‎information necessary for designing and optimizing new components that utilize R410A ‎for air-conditioning and heat pumping applications.‎

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T14:58:05Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 IgorMGA_DISSERT_1-100.pdf: 3498388 bytes, checksum: 478be24ae351a921f1a23bafc58492ef (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-12-20 / This research this based on the seminar on Use of Natural Fluids in Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Systems conducted in 2007 in Sao Paulo. The event was inserted in the National Plan for Elimination of CFCs, coordinated by the Ministry of Environment and implemented by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The objective of this research is analyze the performance of the hydrocarbons application as zeotropic mixtures in domestic refrigerator and validate the application of technical standards for pull down and cycling (on-off) tests to the mixture R290/R600a (50:50) in domestic refrigerator. It was first developed an computational analysis of R290/R600a (50:50) compared to R134a and other mass fractions of the hydrocarbons mixtures in the standard ASHRAE refrigeration cycle in order to compare the operational characteristics and thermodynamic properties of fluids based on the software REFPROP 6.0. The characteristics of the Lorenz cycle is presented as an application directed to zeotropic mixtures. Standardized pull down and cycling (on-off) tests were conducted to evaluate the performance of the hydrocarbons mixture R290/R600a (50:50) as a drop-in alternative to R134a in domestic refrigerator of 219 L. The results showed that the use of R290/R600a (50:50) with a charge of refrigerant reduced at 53% compared to R134a presents reduced energy performance than R134a. The COP obtained with hydrocarbon mixture was about 13% lower compared to R134a. Pull down times in the refrigerator compartments for fluids analyzed were quite close, having been found a 4,7% reduction in pull down time for the R290/R600a compared to R134a, in the freezer compartment. The data indicated a higher consumption of electric current from the refrigerator when operating with the R290/R600a. The values were higher than about 3% compared to R134a. The charge of 40 g of R290/R600a proved very low for the equipment analyzed / Esta pesquisa est? baseada no semin?rio Uso de Fluidos Naturais em Sistemas de Refrigera??o e Ar-Condicionado realizado em 2007 na cidade de S?o Paulo. O evento esteve inserido no Plano Nacional de Elimina??o de CFC?s, coordenado pelo Minist?rio do Meio Ambiente e implementado pelo Programa das Na??es Unidas para o Desenvolvimento (PNUD). O objetivo do trabalho ? analisar a performance da aplica??o de hidrocarbonetos como misturas zeotr?picas em refrigerador dom?stico e validar a aplica??o das normas t?cnicas de ensaios de abaixamento de temperatura e ciclagem para a mistura R290/R600a (50:50) em refrigerador dom?stico. Foi desenvolvida primeiramente uma an?lise computacional do R290/R600a (50:50) em rela??o ao R134a e outras fra??es de massa da mistura de hidrocarbonetos operando no ciclo de refrigera??o padr?o ASHRAE de modo a comparar as caracter?sticas operacionais e termodin?micas destes fluidos com base no software REFPROP 6.0. As caracter?sticas do ciclo Lorenz s?o apresentadas como aplica??o direcionada ?s misturas zeotr?picas. Ensaios normalizados de abaixamento de temperatura e ciclagem foram desenvolvidos para avaliar a performance da mistura de hidrocarbonetos R290/R600a (50:50) como uma alternativa de drop-in do R134a em refrigerador dom?stico de 219 litros de capacidade. Os resultados mostraram que a utiliza??o do R290/R600a (50:50) com uma carga reduzida em 53% da carga de R134a apresenta desempenho energ?tico ligeiramente inferior ao R134a. O COP obtido para a opera??o com a mistura de hidrocarbonetos foi cerca de 13% inferior em rela??o ao R134a. Os tempos de abaixamento de temperatura nos compartimentos do refrigerador para os fluidos analisados foram bastante pr?ximos, tendo sido verificada uma redu??o de 4,7% no tempo de abaixamento para o R290/R600a em compara??o ao R134a, no compartimento do freezer. Foi verificado um maior consumo de corrente el?trica do refrigerador quando operando com o R290/R600a. Os valores obtidos foram superiores cerca de 3% em rela??o ao R134a. A carga de 40 g do R290/R600a se mostrou diminuta para o equipamento analisado

A presente dissertação trata de um estudo teórico-experimental sobre a perda de pressão em canais de diâmetro reduzido durante escoamento bifásico de refrigerantes halogenados. Trocadores de calor baseados na ebulição convectiva, em condições de micro-escala são amplamente estudados devido à intensificação da troca de calor proporcionada e a possibilidade de compactação de sistemas de resfriamento. Proporcionam também a redução do inventário de refrigerante e do material utilizado no processo de fabricação do trocador. Porém, o incremento da transferência de calor é acompanhada pelo aumento da perda de pressão, parâmetro também fundamental para o desempenho do sistema. Para o projeto satisfatório e otimizado destes dispositivos são necessários métodos de previsão de transferência de calor e perda de pressão. Entretanto, no caso de canais de diâmetro reduzido, tais ferramentas não encontram-se disponíveis e trocadores de calor baseados em escoamentos bifásicos no interior de canais de diâmetro reduzido vêm sendo desenvolvidos heuristicamente. Desta forma, inicialmente neste estudo, realizou-se uma revisão crítica da literatura envolvendo critérios de transição entre padrões de escoamento, fração de vazio superficial, perda de pressão no interior de canais com diâmetro reduzido durante escoamento bifásico e os principais métodos de estimativa da perda de pressão para macro e micro-escala. Resultados experimentais para perda de pressão levantados neste estudo em condições adiabáticas para os fluidos R245fa e R134a e tubo com 1,1 mm de diâmetro interno foram descritos e comparados aos métodos preditivos encontrados na literatura. Finalmente um novo método da previsão da perda de pressão foi proposto baseado na correlação de Müller-Steinhagen e Heck (1986), ajustando os valores do coeficiente e do expoente com base nos resultados experimentais levantados. / A theorical and experimental study on two-phase pressure drop inside micro-scale channels has been developed. Recently, the study of flow boiling in micro-scale channel have received special attention from academia and industry due to several advantages that they offer such as minimization of fluid inventory, high degree of compactness of the heat exchangers, better performance and the capacity of dissipate extremely high heat fluxes. The significant heat transfer coefficient enhancement provided by micro-scale channels comes together with a huge pressure drop penalty that impacts the efficiency of the overall cooling system. So, accurate predictive methods to evaluate the pressure drop are necessary for the appropriate design of the system and for its optimization. In the present study, firstly, a critical review on studies from literature was performed that covers criteria of transition between micro- and macro-scale flow boiling, void fraction, frictional pressure drop on micro-scale channels and the leading frictional pressure drop predictive methods. Experimental pressure drop results were acquired under adiabatic conditions for R245fa and R134a fluids and internal diameter tube of 1.1 mm. Then, the leading pressure drop predictive methods were compared against the present database. Also a new correlation based on Muller-Steinhagen e Heck (1986) method was proposed in this work by adjusting new empirical constants based on the present database together with previous results obtained by Tibiriçá et al. (2011) for a 2.3 mm ID tube.

A presente pesquisa trata de um estudo experimental da transferência de calor e da perda de carga de fluidos refrigerantes puros e suas misturas em mudança de fase convectiva no interior de tubos lisos e aqueles dotados de ranhuras internas. Para tanto, foi desenvolvido um equipamento experimental cujo componente básico é composto por um tubo horizontal, aquecido por intermédio de uma resistência elétrica do tipo fita, aderida à superfície externa do tubo. As condições de ensaio variaram numa ampla faixa, permitindo cobrir as condições verificadas na maioria das instalações frigoríficas. Os resultados experimentais foram agrupados em duas faixas de velocidades mássicas: elevadas (G > ou = 200 kg/s.m2), onde prepondera o padrão anular de escoamento, e reduzidas (G < 200 kg/s.m2), predominando o padrão estratificado. Os principais parâmetros que afetam o coeficiente de transferência de calor, tais como, velocidade mássica, fluxo de calor, tipo de refrigerante, temperatura de evaporação e diâmetro do tubo foram analisados. O desempenho termo-hidráulico, relativo ao efeito combinado da transferência de calor e da perda de carga dos tubos ranhurados, foi sensivelmente superior quando comparados aos tubos lisos. A análise dos resultados experimentais permitiu a proposição de correlações para a perda da carga, avaliada através do multiplicador bifásico, &#966L, e para coeficiente de transferência de calor, em tubos lisos e ranhurados. As correlações propostas se mostraram adequadas para aplicações práticas, proporcionando desvios reduzidos em relação aos resultados experimentais. Destacam-se as correlações obtidas para o multiplicador bifásico para tubos microaletados e para o coeficiente de transferência de calor para vazões reduzidas em tubos lisos. Diversos registros fotográficos dos principais padrões de escoamento foram levantados, tendo sido importante na análise e entendimento da mudança de fase. / Present research deals with an experimental study of the heat transfer and pressure drop of pure and mixtures of refrigerants undergoing convective boiling inside horizontal smooth and microfin tubes. An experimental apparatus has been developed and constructed whose main component is a horizontal tube electrically heated. Experimental results have been grouped into two mass velocity ranges: the one corresponding to mass velocities lower than 200 kg/s.m2, where the stratified flow pattern is dominant, and that for mass velocities higher than 200 kg/s.m2, where typically the annular flow pattern can be found. Effects over the heat transfer coefficient of physical parameters such as mass velocity, heat flux, diameter, saturation temperature, and refrigerant have been investigated and analyzed. It has been found out that the thermo-hydraulic performance of microfin tubes is better than that of the smooth ones. Empirical correlations have been proposed for both the two-phase flow multiplier and the heat transfer coefficient for different ranges of operating conditions as well as for smooth and microfin tubes. Results from the proposed correlations can be deemed adequate for practical applications given the limited dispersion obtained with respect to their experimental counterpart. Noteworthy are the results obtained from correlations for both the two phase flow multiplier for microfin tubes and the heat transfer coefficient for the lower range of mass velocities in smooth tubes. Finally, worth mentioning is the photographic essay developed in present research involving the flow patterns that occur under convective boiling of refrigerants in horizontal tubes.

Le problème du réchauffement climatique actuel conduit au renforcement des règlementations environnementales. Ainsi, le domaine du génie climatique est affecté par ces évolutions réglementaires, ce qui impose le passage à une nouvelle génération de réfrigérants à plus bas impact environnemental. Dans cette thèse, ce sujet est étudié dans le cas des groupes refroidisseurs d’eau utilisant le R-410A qui est visé par la réglementation. Mais, résoudre ce problème ne s’arrête pas au simple changement du réfrigérant par un autre à plus bas GWP ; il faut que la transition soit accompagnée par une amélioration ou un maintien de la puissance frigorifique et de la performance énergétique du système par crainte d’avoir un effet environnemental inverse parce que la consommation énergétique représente un plus grand effet sur l’impact environnemental que celui du GWP du réfrigérant.Une revue de la littérature et des tests expérimentaux réalisés en remplaçant le R-410A montrent que les réfrigérants présents sur le marché et proposés par les fabricants pour remplacer le R-410A ne permettent pas d’avoir les améliorations souhaitées. Parmi ces substituants le R-32 est le plus utilisé et semble être prometteur mais avec une réduction du COP et des températures de refoulement du compresseur très élevées. Ainsi, la solution de la compression refroidie par injection d’huile de lubrification au niveau du compresseur est étudiée et modélisée. Le modèle théorique montre qu’elle permet de refroidir la compression et de réduire la consommation du compresseur à condition d’avoir des gouttes d’huile très fines avec un débit et une température de l’huile injectée contrôlables.Pour appliquer cette solution, un système d’atomisation de l’huile est conçu et testé ; les résultats montrent qu’il estpossible de créer un spray de gouttes très fines pour des pressions d’injection de l’ordre de la différence entre la haute et labasse pression du groupe refroidisseur d’eau. La compression refroidie est testée en connectant le système d’atomisationde l’huile au groupe refroidisseur d’eau. Une réduction de la température de refoulement du compresseur et de lapuissance consommée par le compresseur est mesurée, mais elle est plus faible que la réduction prévue théoriquement. Enintégrant une augmentation du diamètre des gouttes durant la compression dans le modèle théorique, les résultats de la simulation sont proches des résultats expérimentaux. / Current global warming problem leads to more stringent environmental standards. Thus the HVAC field is affected by these standard changes, which requires the transition to a new generation of refrigerants with lower environmental impact. In this thesis, this aspect is studied in the case of water chillers using R-410A that is subject to substitution due to new standards. But solving this problem doesn’t stop at mere refrigerant change by another with lower GWP. It is necessary that improvement or maintain of cooling capacity and energy efficiency of the system accompanies this transition by fear of having a reverse effect because global energy consumption represents a greater effect on the environmental impact than refrigerant GWP.A review of literature and experimental tests carried out by replacing R-410A show that refrigerants used in the market and offered by manufacturers to replace R-410A don’t allow the desired improvements. Among these substituents, R-32 is the most used and seems promising, but it causes a decrease of COP and very high compressor discharge temperatures. Thus, the solution of cooled compression by injection of lubricating oil in the compressor is studied and modeled. The theoretical model shows that this solution helps cooling the compression and reduces compressor power consumption provided that injection is characterized by very fine drops of oil with controllable flowrate and oil temperature.To implement this solution, an oil atomization system is designed and tested, the results show that it is possible to create a spray of very fine droplets for injection pressures of the order of the difference between the high and low pressures of the water chiller. Cooled compression is then tested by connecting the oil atomization system to the water chiller. Reductions of compressor discharge temperature and of compressor power consumption are measured, but measured reductions are lower than the theoretical expected reductions. By integrating an increased droplet

In einer Vielzahl von Kältemaschinen und Wärmepumpen werden ölgeschmierte Verdich-ter eingesetzt. Aufgrund ihrer Konstruktion kommt es zu einer Durchmischung des Arbeitsfluides mit dem eingesetzten Schmierstoff. Die thermodynamischen und Transporteigenschaften der so entstehenden Gemische können sich von denen der jeweiligen Reinstoffe deutlich unterscheiden. Für eine optimale Auslegung des Prozesses und der Komponenten ist daher die Kenntnis der Gemischeigenschaften notwendig. Für die Modellierung der Stoffdatenberechnungsalgorithmen ergeben sich jedoch Probleme, da eine Vielzahl von Eigenschaften des reinen Öles und des Gemisches nicht oder nur unzureichend genau vermessen werden können. Durch den Ersatz von Kältemitteln mit hohem Treibhauspotential kann ein Beitrag zum Klimaschutz geleistet werden. Insbesondere das Kältemittel R23 sowie die Gemische R508A und R508B sind solche Kältemittel.Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wird experimentell dargestellt, dass sich diese Fluide durch Gemische von Kohlenstoffdioxid und Ethan oder Ethen ersetzen lassen. Hierzu werden die Gefriertemperaturen der Gemische sowie der mögliche Ersatz von R23 dargestellt. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden experimentell die thermophysikalischen Eigenschaften Dampfdruck, Mischungslücke, Flüssigkeitsdichte, dynamische Viskosität, spezifische iso-bare Wärmekapazität und Grenzflächenspannung von niedrigviskosen Polyolestern im Gemisch mit Kohlenstoffdioxid, Ethan und Ethen untersucht. Diese Schmierstoffe sind typi-sche Vertreter für die Anwendung in kältetechnischen Kaskadenanlagen mit dem Arbeitsfluid R23. Basierend auf den experimentellen Daten wird in dieser Arbeit dargestellt, wie sich mittels mathematischer und thermodynamischer Zusammenhänge Zustands- und Be-rechnungsgleichungen für die genannten thermophysikalischen Eigenschaften ableiten lassen. Zur Anpassung der Form und Koeffizienten der Zustandsgleichung werden neben den ther-modynamischen Eigenschaften auch die Grenzflächenspannung und die dynamische Vis-kosität mittels des Ansatzes der Viskosität-Residualentropie-Korrelation verwendet. An-hand der Methode des hängenden Tropfens können die Grenzflächenspannungen experimentell abgeleitet werden. Die dabei wesentliche Tropfenkontur kann im Weiteren über die Grenzflächenspannung auch zur Anpassung der Zustandsgleichung und somit auch zur Ableitung anderer thermophysikalischer Eigenschaften genutzt werden.:Inhaltsverzeichnis Kurzfassung Nomenklatur Abbildungsverzeichnis Tabellenverzeichnis Anhangsverzeichnis 1. Einleitung 2. Ziele der Arbeit 3. Tieftemperaturkältemittel für Anwendungen bis –100 °C 3.1 Thermophysikalische Eigenschaften von R23, R508A und R508B 3.2 Technische Anwendungen von R23 und R508A 3.3 Kohlenstoffdioxidgemische für Tieftemperaturanwendungen und potentielle R23-Ersatzstoffe 3.4 Kältemaschinenöle für Kälteanwendungen bis -100 °C 3.5 Untersuchte Fluide und Gemische mit Polyolestern 4. Berechnungsansätze zur Bestimmung der thermophysikalischen Eigenschaften der Stoffgemische 4.1 Berechnung von Fest-Flüssig-Gleichgewichten mittels der Schrödergleichung und deren Erweiterung 4.2 Ableitung von Phasengleichgewichten und thermodynamischen Zustandsgrößen aus der freien Helmholtz-Energie Fundamentalgleichung 4.3 Berechnung der Viskosität von Öl-Kältemittel-Gemischen mittels der Viskosität-Residualentropie-Korrelation 4.4 Berechnung der Oberflächenspannung der Öle und der Grenzflächenspannung der Gemische 4.5 Bestimmung der Koeffizienten und Terme der Zustandsgleichung mittels Messdaten und Strukturanpassung 5. Messapparaturen und Messdurchführungen zur Bestimmung der thermophysikalischen Eigenschaften der Gemische 5.1 Vorbereitung der untersuchten Fluide 5.2 Vermessung der Fest-Flüssig-Gleichgewichte von Kohlenstoffdioxid-Ethan und Kohlenstoffdioxid-Ethen Gemischen 5.2.1 Messapparatur zur Bestimmung von Fest-Flüssig-Gleichgewichte 5.2.2 Bestimmung der Fest-Flüssig-Gleichgewichte mittels der Rosini-Methode 5.3 Messapparatur und Auswertung der VLE- und LLE-Messungen von Öl-Kältemittel Gemischen 5.3.1 Messapparatur zur Bestimmung von VLE und LLE 5.3.2 Dampfraumkorrektur für isochore Messungen 5.3.3 Bestimmung der Form der LLE durch Vermessung der Mischungslückenteilvolumina 5.4 Vermessung der Dichte und dynamischen Viskosität der Öl-Kältemittel-Gemische 5.5 Messapparatur zur Bestimmung der spezifischen isobaren Wärmekapazität 5.5.1 Ermittlung der spezifischen Wärmekapazitäten mittels Kalorimetrie 5.5.2 Messapparatur zur Bestimmung der spezifischen isobaren Wärmekapazität 5.6 Optische Vermessung der Oberflächenspannung mittels der Methode des hängenden Tropfens 5.6.1 Ermittlung der Grenzflächenspannung von Fluiden in Gasatmosphären 5.6.2 Messapparatur zur Bestimmung der Oberflächenspannung 5.6.3 Auswertungsprozedur der Oberflächenspannungsmessung und Ableitung der Laplace- und Kapillarkonstanten 6. Messergebnisse der thermophysikalischen Stoffeigenschaften und Koeffizientenbestimmung 6.1 SLE von Kohlenstoffdioxid-Ethan und Kohlenstoffdioxid-Ethen-Gemischen 6.2 Mischungslücken der untersuchten Gemische 6.3 Dampf-Flüssigkeits-Gleichgewichte der Öl-Kältemittelgemische 6.4 Flüssigkeitsdichten der untersuchten Gemische 6.5 Dynamische und kinematische Viskosität der Stoffgemische 6.6 Spezifische isobare Wärmekapazitäten der Öle und Gemische 6.7 Grenzflächenspannung der Öl-Kältemittelgemische 7. Anlagentest zum Ersatz von R23 durch Kohlenstoffdioxid-Ethen-Gemische 7.1 Versuchsstand einer zweistufigen Kältekaskade 7.2 Vorbereitung, Durchführung und Ergebnisse der experimentellen Untersuchungen an einer zweistufigen Kaskadenkälteanlage 7.3 Verbesserungsvorschläge für den Einsatz von Kohlenstoffdioxid-Ethen-Gemischen als Ersatz für R23 in Kaskadenkältemaschinen 8. Kurzdiskussion der Ergebnisse 9. Zusammenfassung 10. Literaturverzeichnis

<p> </p> <p>Gas sensors have many applications. Volatile organic compound (VOC) sensors are used for monitoring air quality in homes and office spaces, as well as monitoring manufacturing environments where a wide variety of VOCs can be produced. These gases can include formaldehyde, which can be toxic to humans at concentrations as low as 1 ppm. Other applications for gas sensors include flammable refrigerant detection. With the move towards developing more environmentally friendly appliances, many companies have started to use refrigerants such as R600a (isobutane) and R32 (difluoromethane), which have a much lower global warming potential (GWP) than their predecessors, such as R134a and R410a. While this move is beneficial for the environment, steps to ensure their safe usage have not been widely implemented to date. Therefore, sensors to detect VOCs at or below exposure limits, as well as flammable refrigerants at or below lower flammability limits (LFL), should be developed to ensure undue hazards are identified and mitigated. </p>

Aqueous solutions of organic or inorganic salts are used as secondary refrigerants in indirect refrigeration systems to transport and transfer heat. Water is known for its corrosive character and secondary refrigerants based on aqueous solutions have the same tendency. The least corrosive from the aqueous solutions are glycols and alcohols. Salt solutions, such as chlorides and potassium salts, are much more corrosive. Nevertheless, it is possible to minimize corrosion risks at the beginning stage while designing system. Proper design can significantly help in improving system performance against corrosion. There are several aspects which need to be taken into account while working with secondary refrigerants: design of system, selection of secondary refrigerant, proper corrosion inhibitors, compatible materials used to build the installation and proper preparation of system to operation. While choosing proper materials it is advised to avoid the formation of a galvanic couple to reduce the risk of the most dangerous type of corrosion. Oxygen present in installation is another important factor increasing the rate of corrosion. Even small amounts of oxygen can significantly affect the system lifetime. The methods of cleaning, charging the system with refrigerant, and deaeration procedures are extremely important. The purpose of this thesis work is to present the problems of corrosion occurring in the indirect systems with secondary refrigerants. The thesis describes the mechanism of corrosion and its different types, most commonly used materials in installation, different corrosion inhibitors used to protect system. This thesis also lists the available secondary refrigerants on the market and briefly describes them. Further, it describes the important aspects related with designing, preparing and maintaining of indirect systems. This thesis is giving some clues and shows what should be done in order to reduce risks of corrosion. / Effsys 2 P2 project

The objective of this research was to investigate the performance of two-phase spray cooling with HFC-134a and HFO-1234yf refrigerants using practical enhanced heat transfer surfaces. Results of the study were expected to provide a quantitative spray cooling performance comparison with working fluids representing the current and next-generation mobile air conditioning refrigerants, and demonstrate the feasibility of this approach as an alternative active cooling technology for the thermal management of high heat flux power electronics (i.e., IGBTs) in electric-drive vehicles. Potential benefits of two-phase spray cooling include achieving more efficient and reliable operation, as well as compact and lightweight system design that would lead to cost reduction. The experimental work involved testing of four different enhanced boiling surfaces in comparison to a plain reference surface, using a commercial pressure-atomizing spray nozzle at a range of liquid flow rates for each refrigerant to determine the spray cooling performance with respect to heat transfer coefficient (HTC) and critical heat flux (CHF). The heater surfaces were prepared using dual-stage electroplating, brush coating, sanding, and particle blasting, all featuring "practical" room temperature processes that do not require specialized equipment. Based on the obtained results, HFC-134a provided a better heat transfer performance through higher HTC and CHF values compared to HFO-1234yf at all tested surfaces and flow rates. While majority of the tested surfaces provided comparable HTC and modestly higher CHF values compared to the reference surface, one of the enhanced surfaces offered significant heat transfer enhancement.

Eco-friendly non-CFC refrigerants were introduced in the Air Conditioning and Refrigeration industry during the last few years to reduce damage to the stratospheric ozone layer. The HFC refrigerant R-134a, which has zero Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP), is being used extensively as a replacement for R-12 and also in some centrifugal chillers as a replacement for R-11. However, the disadvantage of R-134a is its comparatively high global warming potential (GWP). Owing to energy crisis and also to reduce the indirect warming impact resulting from electrical energy usage, the new refrigeration systems should be operated at the lowest possible condensing temperatures. In view of this, several active and passive techniques for augmentation of condensation heat transfer and reduction of condensation temperature are gaining increasing attention. Passive augmentation methods are more popular than active ones. To this end, micro-finned tubes of various geometrical shapes are being explored for compact heat exchangers in the refrigeration industry as the best choice. Towards understanding the enhancement in condensation heat transfer coefficients in micro-finned tubes, a test facility has been fabricated to measure the condensing coefficients for R-134a refrigerant. Condensation experiments have been conducted on single plain and finned tubes of outer diameter 19 mm with a refrigerant saturation temperature of 400C and tube wall temperatures 350C, 320C, 300C and 280C respectively. Water is used as the cooling medium inside the tubes with the flow rate varying from 180 lph to 600 lph. The condensing coefficient typically ranged from 0.9 – 1.4 kW/(m2 K) for plain tubes and from 4.2 to 5.8 kW/(m2 K) for the finned tubes. The results of the plain v tube are found to compare favourably with the Nusselt’s theory, leading to a validation of the experimental procedure. Upon comparing the results of finned and plain tubes, it is found that provision of fins result in an enhancement factor of 3.6 to 4.6 in the condensation heat transfer coefficients. This level of enhancement is larger than that resulting from the enhanced surface area of the finned tube surface, suggesting that, apart from the extended area, the surface tension forces play an important role in the augmentation process by driving the condensate from the fin crests to the valleys in between the fins. The measured augmentation factors have also been cross-checked using the Wilson plot method. Detailed error analysis has been performed to quantify the uncertainty in the condensation heat transfer coefficient. The performance of a bank of tubes has been determined based on the measurements carried out on practical condensers of two large chillers with refrigerating capacities of 500 TR and 550 TR. On comparing the finned tube bank results and the single finned tube results, it is found that the average condensation heat transfer coefficient in a bank of tubes having N rows varies as N ¯1/6. The deterioration is in agreement with the relation proposed by Kern.