Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Entomology / Ludek Zurek / House fly (Musca domestica L.) larvae develop in decaying organic substrates such as animal manure and adult flies likely play an important role in the ecology of fecal bacteria, including potentially virulent strains. House fly larval development strictly depends on an active bacterial community in the habitat. Although the principle of this symbiosis is not well understood, this association plays a fundamental role in transmission of microbes by this insect. In this study, enterococci were chosen as a model organism to assess the role of house flies in dissemination of multi-drug resistant bacteria in the agricultural environment. House flies (FF) and cattle manure (FM) from a cattle feedlot (frequent use of antibiotics) and house flies (BF) and manure of the American bison (BM) from the Konza Prairie Nature Preserve (no antibiotic use) were collected and analyzed. Results showed a significantly higher prevalence of enterococci resistant to tetracycline and erythromycin in FM and FF compared to that of BF and BM. Enterococcal diversity did not indicate the house fly development in manure in the corresponding habitats but the antibiotic resistance data showed very similar profiles among isolates from flies and corresponding locations. Resistance genes (tetM, tetS, tetO, ermB) and the conjugative transposon Tn916 were the most commonly detected determinants from resistant isolates from both environments. The house fly digestive tract was evaluated for the potential for horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes among Enterococcus faecalis. Horizontal transfer of the pCF10 plasmid with the tetracycline resistance gene (tetM) occurred in the fly digestive tract with a transfer rate up to 101 T/D. In addition, eight enterococcal species were selected to evaluate their role and survival during house fly development. Overall, the survival rate (egg to adult) was significantly higher with E. hirae, E. durans and E. avium compared to other strains. These results indicate: a) house flies play an important role in the ecology of antibiotic resistant enterococci; b) the house fly digestive tract provides conditions for horizontal gene transfer among enterococci, and c) enterococci support the house fly development and can colonize the gut of newly emerging adult flies.

Le haricot commun est la légumineuse à graine la plus consommée au monde en alimentation humaine. Le génome du haricot possède plusieurs énormes clusters de gènes de résistance (R) qui ont la particularité de se cartographier en extrémité de groupes de liaison. Le génome du haricot commun (génotype Andin G19833) a été récemment séquencé et nous avons participé à ce projet en annotant la famille des NB-LRR (NL), classe prépondérante des gènes de résistance. Ces données génomiques nous ont permis de réaliser les 3 études suivantes. (i) L’identification des bases moléculaires de Co-x un gène R vis-à-vis d’une souche très virulente de C. lindemuthianum chez JaloEEP558 a été initiée. La cartographie fine de Co-x suivie du séquençage de la région cible chez JaloEEP558 (Co-x) a permis d’identifier un gène candidat codant une kinase atypique qui pourrait être la cible d’un effecteur fongique, gardée par un gène R. (ii) Des études récentes ont mis en évidence l’implication de petits ARNs (miRNAs induisant la production de phased siRNAs) dans la régulation de l’expression des NL. Le séquençage et l’analyse de banques de sRNAs de haricot nous ont permis d’identifier ce mécanisme et de mettre le doigt sur un nouveau mécanisme de régulation des NL impliquant des sRNAs de 24 nt. (iii) Des ADN satellites ont été étudiés à l’échelle du génome du haricot. L’étude des centromères de haricot a permis de mettre en évidence l’existence de 2 ADN satellites différents, Nazca et CentPv2. Nous avons également étudié un ADN satellite subtélomérique khipu précédemment identifié au niveau de 2 clusters de gènes R du haricot. L’étude de khipu à l’échelle du génome suggère l’existence d’échanges fréquents de séquences entre subtélomères de chromosomes non homologues. Ces résultats nous ont amenés à proposer que des éléments structuraux et une combinaison de mécanismes de régulation (TGS et PTGS) permettent la prolifération des NL sans effet néfaste pour la plante, conduisant à l’obtention de très gros clusters de NL dans le génome du haricot. / Common bean is the main source of protein for human consumption in many developing countries. Several huge disease resistance (R) gene clusters have been mapped at the end of common bean linkage groups. The common bean genome (Andean genotype G19833) has recently been sequenced. Access to the complete genome sequence of common bean allowed us to annotate the Nucleotide Binding-Leucine Rich Repeat (NL) encoding gene family, the prevalent class of disease R genes in plants, and to perform the 3 following studies: (i) We have investigated the molecular basis of Co-x, an anthracnose R gene to a highly virulent strain of C. lindemuthianum, previously identified in the Andean cultivar JaloEEP558. Fine mapping of Co-x and sequencing of the target region in JaloEEP558, allowed us to identify a candidate gene encoding an atypical kinase. We hypothesised that this atypical kinase is a fungal effector target. (ii) Several recent studies have highlighted the role of small RNA (miRNAs that triggered phased siRNAs production) in the regulating of NL gene expression. Analyses of small RNAs libraries of common bean led to the identification of this mechanism in common bean and also allowed us to propose a new NL regulation pathway involving 24 nt sRNAs. (iii) We have studied centromeric and subtelomeric satellite DNAs at common bean genome level. We have identified 2 different satellite DNAs in common bean centromeres, Nazca and CentPv2. We have also conducted the analyze of the subtelomeric satellite khipu, previously identified in common bean R clusters and confirmed that frequent sequence exchange occurs between non-homologous chromosome ends in common bean genome. Together, these results led us to propose that both structural elements and a combination of regulatory mechanisms (TGS, PTGS) allow the amplification of NL sequences without detrimental effect for the plant leading to the large NL clusters observed in common bean.

No description available.

Antibiotics are biologically active and are globally used in humans and animal medicine for treatment and in sub-therapeutic amounts as growth promoters in animal husbandry, aquaculture and agriculture. After excretion, inappropriate disposal and discharge from drug production facilities they enter into water bodies either as intact drugs, metabolites or transformed products. In water environments they promote development of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) which could serve as a reservoir and be horizontally transferred to human-associated bacteria and thus contribute to AR proliferation. Measurement of antibiotics has been revolutionized with the usage of solid phase extraction (SPE) for enrichment followed by Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS). On-line SPE coupled to LC-MS/MS has the advantages of high sample throughput, low sample preparation time and minimal solvent utilization.  Constructed wetlands (CWs) are potential alternatives to conventional treatment plants to remove organic pollutants. A study at Plönninge, Halmstad was performed to assess the impact of bacterial community pattern and development of resistance in spiked (n=4) and control (n=4). CWs were spiked with antibiotics at environmentally relevant concentrations continuously for 25 days. Shannon Index (H’) were used to determine the bacterial diversity and real-time PCR detected and quantified antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) sulI, tetA, tetB, erm, dfrA1, qnrS and vanB and class 1 integrons intI1. No significant differences in bacterial compositions or in ARGs or integron concentrations could be discerned between exposed and control wetlands. A study conducted in Northern Pakistan showed that the antibiotic levels in most studied rivers were comparable to surface water measurements in unpolluted sites in Europe and the US. However, high levels of antibiotics were detected in the river in close vicinity of the 10 million city Lahore, e.g. 4600 ng L−1 sulfamethoxazole. Highest detected levels were at one of the drug formulation facilities, with measured levels up to 49000 ng L−1 of sulfamethoxazole for example. The highest levels of ARGs detected, sul1 and dfrA1, were directly associated with the antibiotics detected at the highest concentrations, sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim. In the study in UK, sewage epidemiology surveillance is used to measure the oseltamivir carboxylate (OC), metabolite of oseltamivir (parent drug) in twenty four time proportional hourly influent samples from two WWTPs and then back-calculations were made to assess the compliance of drug.  Predicted users of oseltamivir, based on measured OC in waste water, ranged from 3-4 and 120-154 people for the two WWTP catchments, respectively, which are consistent with the projected use from national antiviral allocation statistics, 3-8 and 108-270, respectively. Scenario analysis suggests compliance was likely between 45-60% in the study regions.

No description available.

Bien que l’évolution de la résistance aux médicaments soit l'un des plus grands défis dans la lutte contre les maladies infectieuses, beaucoup de phénomènes restent inexpliqués. Dans le cas de la leishmaniose, la résistance est un problème majeur depuis plusieurs années. Cette maladie zoonotique négligée est causée par le parasite protozoaire Leishmania, transmis par des phlébotomes lors du repas sanguin. Chez l’humain, elle se décline en trois formes principales : viscérale, cutanée et muco-cutanée. La leishmaniose peut aussi se développer chez les chiens infectés, qui constituent un réservoir majeur de transmission. Sans vaccin efficace, le contrôle de la maladie repose principalement sur la chimiothérapie, mais peu de molécules homologuées sont disponibles. En outre, les mêmes produits sont utilisés chez les chiens et les humains, ce qui favorise l'émergence et la propagation de souches résistantes aux médicaments. Leishmania est en effet connu pour détenir d’incroyables particularités génomiques (telles que la formation d’amplicons circulaires contenant des gènes de résistance) qui lui permettent de survivre dans des conditions de stress, telles que la pression médicamenteuse. Par ailleurs, Leishmania est un eucaryote qui a conservé la capacité de produire des vésicules extracellulaires (EVs) au cours de l’évolution. Ces particules de taille nanométrique sont produites naturellement par la majorité des cellules biologiques et ont un contenu riche en protéines, lipides et acides nucléiques. Bien que des caractéristiques clés des EVs du protozoaire aient été découvertes, aucune étude n’a encore été réalisée sur les EVs de souches résistantes. Ainsi, cet aspect constitue le cœur de mon projet de recherche de doctorat : l’étude des EVs de Leishmania et leur rôle dans le phénomène de la résistance aux médicaments. Nos travaux sont les premiers à démontrer que les mécanismes de résistance aux médicaments peuvent induire des changements dans la morphologie, la taille et la distribution des EVs de Leishmania. Nous avons identifié le protéome de base des EVs du parasite et nous avons mis en évidence des protéines enrichies dans les EVs libérées par des parasites résistants à l'antimoine, à la miltéfosine et à l'amphotéricine B. Nous avons également étudié le contenu en ADN des EVs de parasites résistants et confirmé l'enrichissement des amplicons porteurs de gènes de résistance aux médicaments, associés aux EVs. En complément, nos tests de transferts d’EVs ont prouvé que ces vésicules permettent le transfert horizontal de gènes de résistance : un mécanisme alternatif de résistance aux médicaments. Finalement, nous avons montré que les EVs des parasites résistants améliorent la croissance des promastigotes et réduisent l'accumulation de ROS, ce qui favorise la survie et la propagation des populations résistantes aux médicaments. En conclusion, ces découvertes permettront le développement de nouveaux tests diagnostiques et de nouvelles approches thérapeutiques pour certaines maladies infectieuses zoonotiques, basés sur les profils des EVs. De plus, elles ont une importance majeure dans la compréhension de la résistance médicamenteuse et prouve que les EVs fonctionnent comme des médiateurs efficaces dans le transfert horizontal de gène. Ce nouveau mécanisme facilite ainsi la transmission des gènes de résistance aux médicaments entre les parasites et favorise leur survie lorsqu'ils sont confrontés à des environnements stressants. / Although the evolution of drug resistance is one of the greatest challenges in the fight against infectious diseases, many phenomena remain unexplained. In the case of leishmaniasis, resistance has been a major problem for several years. This neglected zoonotic disease is caused by the protozoan parasite Leishmania, transmitted by sandflies during the blood meal. In humans, it comes in three main forms: visceral, cutaneous, and mucocutaneous. Leishmaniasis can also develop in infected dogs, which constitute a major reservoir of transmission. Without an effective vaccine, the control of the disease relies mainly on chemotherapy, but few approved molecules are available. Furthermore, the same products are used in dogs and humans, which promotes the emergence and spread of drug-resistant strains. Leishmania is indeed known to possess incredible genomic peculiarities (such as the formation of circular amplicons containing resistance genes) which allow it to survive under stressful conditions, such as drug pressure. Furthermore, Leishmania is a eukaryote that has retained the ability to produce extracellular vesicles (EVs) during evolution. These nano-sized particles are produced naturally by most biological cells and have a rich content of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Although key characteristics of the protozoan EVs have been discovered, no studies have yet been performed on the EVs of resistant strains. Thus, this aspect constitutes the heart of my doctoral research project: the study of Leishmania EVs and their role in the phenomenon of drug resistance. Our work is the first to demonstrate that drug resistance mechanisms can induce changes in the morphology, size, and distribution of Leishmania EVs. We have identified the basic proteome of parasite EVs, and we have demonstrated enriched proteins in EVs released by parasites resistant to antimony, miltefosine and amphotericin B. We also studied the DNA content of EVs from resistant parasites and confirmed the enrichment of amplicons carrying drug resistance genes associated with EVs. In addition, our EV transfer tests have proven that these vesicles allow the horizontal transfer of resistance genes: an alternative mechanism of drug resistance. Finally, we showed that EVs from resistant parasites enhance promastigote growth and reduce ROS accumulation, which promotes the survival and spread of drug-resistant populations. In conclusion, these discoveries will allow the development of new diagnostic tests and new therapeutic approaches for certain zoonotic infectious diseases, based on the profiles of EVs. Moreover, these findings are of major importance in the understanding of drug resistance and prove that EVs function as effective mediators in horizontal gene transfer. This new mechanism thus facilitates the transmission of drug resistance genes between parasites and promotes their survival when confronted with stressful environments.