The present investigation evaluated the effectiveness of multiple exemplar training (MET) on the facilitation of bidirectional symmetry-like relations (object-naming) for typically developing children (ages 3-4 yrs) whose first language was Spanish. Two experiments were conducted in which a multiple probe design was implemented to introduce exemplar training across 3 four-item stimulus sets. Participants were first trained in listener (name-object or A-B) relations via either conditional discrimination training (in Experiment 1), or a respondent-type training procedure (in Experiment 2). This training was followed by tests for derived symmetry-like relations (B-A relations). If participants failed these tests, MET was implemented in which B-A relations were explicitly taught with novel stimulus sets. Following MET, probes were conducted again with the original training set and MET continued with novel stimuli until participants met criterion for the emergence of derived B-A relations (Experiment 1) or derived A-B and B-A relations (Experiment 2 only); or after they had been exposed to a total of three different MET sets, whichever occurred first. Results from Experiment 1 indicated failed tests for B-A relations following direct training in A-B relations, and marked improvements in derived B-A relations following MET across all participants. Results from Experiment 2 demonstrated the emergence of derived A-B relations following a respondent-type training procedure (denoted as receptive symmetry training) and the emergence of B-A relations following MET across all participants. These results lend support for the use of a respondent-type training procedure to establish derived relations in typically developing children. Results and implication are discussed in light of a behavior analytic account of language development in general, and for second language acquisition specifically.

This dissertation presents a cross-linguistic investigation of how nonnative sounds are perceived by second language (L2) learners in terms of their first language (L1) categories for an understudies language pair---Japanese and Mandarin Chinese. Category mapping experiment empirically measured the perceived phonetic distances between Chinese sounds and their most resembling Japanese categories, which generated testable predictions on discriminability of Chinese sound contrasts according to Perception Assimilation Model (PAM). Category discrimination experiment obtained data concerning L2 learners' actual performance on discrimination Chinese sounds. The discrepancy between PAM's predictions and actual performances revealed that PAM cannot be applied to L2 perceptual learning. It was suggested that the discriminability of L2 sound contrasts was not only determined by perceived phonetic distances but probably involved other factors, such as the distinctiveness of certain phonetic features, e.g. aspiration and retroflexion. The training experiment assessed the improvement of L2 learners' performance in identifying Chinese sound contrasts with exposure to high variability stimuli and feedback. The results not only proved the effectiveness of training in shaping L2 learners' perception but showed that the training effects were generalizable to new tokens spoken by unfamiliar talkers. In addition to perception, the production of Chinese sounds by Japanese learners was also examined from the phonetic perspective in terms of perceived foreign accentedness. Regression of L2 learners' and native speakers foreign accentedness ratings against acoustic measurements of their speech production revealed that although both segmental and suprasegmental variables contributed to the perception of foreign accent, suprasegmental variables such as total and intonation patterns were the most influential factor in predicting perceived foreign accent. To conclude, PAM failed to accurately predict learning difficulties of nonnative sounds faced by L2 learners solely based on perceived phonetic distances. As Speech Learning Model (SLM) hypothesizes, production was found to be driven by perception, since equivalence classification of L2 sounds to L1 categories prevented the establishment of a new phonological category, thus further resulted in divergence in L2 production. Although production was hypothesized to eventually resemble perception, asynchrony between production and perception was observed due to different mechanisms involved.

This dissertation investigated the effects of technological mediation on second language (L2) learning, focusing, as a case study, on gains in listening perception of the subtle but important feature of pitch placement in Japanese. Pitch accent can be difficult to perceive for non-native speakers whose first language (L1) does not rely on pitch or tone as a distinctive feature, such as English (Wayland & Li, 2008). Pedagogically, Face-To-Face (FTF) interactions with native or near-native speakers are typically the most effective way to learn L2 sound system features due to social presence, but these interactions are not always possible because of physical distance. Mediation can facilitate these interactions, but it is unclear which type results in more learning gains. The current study compared three mediation types that vary in the information provided to the learner: audio-only (asynchronous), video (audiovisual asynchronous), and videoconferencing (audiovisual synchronous), as well as a fourth condition of videoconferencing which facilitated mutual eye contact. The lack of mutual eye contact in standard videoconferencing (due to the webcam being above the image of an interlocutor's face) can inhibit the perceived social presence (Bondareva, Meesters, & Bouwhuis, 2006). A pretest/posttest/delayed posttest design was used, which measured error rates and reaction times for a same/different discrimination task and a picture recognition task. The participants were English L1 speakers, with no prior study of Japanese. After the pretest, they received training in the form of two short lessons in beginner Japanese vocabulary and sentence building administered by a native speaking tutor, which did not explicitly address pitch placement, but used minimal pairs for this feature as vocabulary items. The lessons were followed by a posttest, and a delayed posttest one week later. The results showed that all four conditions succeeded in improving Japanese pitch placement detection, both immediately after and up to a week after the lessons. While an ANOVA revealed no main effect of mediation type, planned comparison results suggest videoconferencing without eye contact may lead to more gains in pitch placement perception than video. A surprising suggestion by the data was that videoconferencing with eye contact may lead to worse performance than the other mediation types. An exit survey detected the self-determination of the participants, and higher self-determination correlated with worse testing performance within the videoconferencing with eye contact condition. This suggests that the addition of eye contact increased the social presence of that condition to the point that it triggered Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety (FLSA) in the participants. Overall, this study highlights that lessons and tasks administered through mediation can be used to provide native speaker input for features that are important for listening and speaking, and this can effectively help learners attend to and learn these features.

In the society of today English-speaking skills are essential, and the school should prepare students to live, work and participate actively in society. However, speaking English does pose a challenge for some students due to speaking anxiety, which can have a negative impact on their development. One possible strategy to counteract this is implementing drama techniques in the foreign language classroom. This study examines two classes of Swedish secondary and upper-secondary school students’- and teachers’ perceptions of the ability to speak in English, of using drama techniques in the second language classroom to overcome students’ speaking anxiety, and other possible benefits of using creative drama in the language classroom. Data are collected through student questionnaires and teacher interviews. The results and findings reveal that reluctant speakers are found in the examined classes. The study also reveals that the teachers, and a majority of the students, perceive creative drama as being beneficial for the taciturn students in overcoming their speaking anxiety. In addition, creative drama is perceived by the students and the teachers as having additional benefits such as improved language skills and self-confidence. Moreover, this study shows that drama pedagogy has the potential of developing a more accepting classroom atmosphere, in which both students and teachers can have some fun.

Many learners in the South African schooling system do not speak English as their first language. Mother-tongue instruction in schools is offered until Grade 3, after which learners are taught in English. As the country has eleven official languages, it is often challenging to teach learners in English because they lack exposure to English, especially in rural areas. Consequently, learners struggle to overcome their barriers to learning when learning in a second language1. This study is a secondary data analysis study. The purpose was to analyse data collected by previous researchers to gain a better understanding of how rural learners have experienced learning in a second language over the years. The research also aimed to understand the impact of living in rural areas on learners’ learning experiences. The study focused on learners in rural areas, I examined the deep impact that learning in a second language has on learners’ schooling. Schooling consists in learners’ school marks, their grammar, their careers, their expectations for the future, to gain a better understanding of the learners’ language experiences. I used stratified purposive sampling and then analysed the data through thematic analysis. The findings provided evidence-based descriptions of the challenges faced by a sample group of Grade 9 learners from 2012 to 2015. Although they faced challenges, they also possessed protective resources which helped them to deal with various challenges. The findings also indicated the extent to which the learners lacked the skills required to become proficient in a second language. It is recommended that teachers and parents/guardians work together to develop strategies for supporting the learners in rural contexts. Learners’ awareness of their assets and protective resources should be developed. Finally continued professional development for teachers should be made compulsory to ensure teachers are able cope with the demands of their jobs. / Dissertation (MEd)--University of Pretoria, 2017. / Educational Psychology / MEd / Unrestricted

Learning a language can induce anxiety among students. In addition, students can feel anxious when it comes to being tested on their language skills. Studies of goal attainment among health patients, students, and others have shown that self regulation through the model of Mental Contrasting with Implementation Intentions (MCII) can help participants reach their goals. In the current study, we sought to determine whether MCII could help learners better cope with anxiety when being orally examined in a second language. Specifically, we examined whether practicing MCII would lead to reductions in language test taking anxiety over time. We compared the levels of test anxiety in students before and after a six-week period where one group was taught MCII and another was not. MCII participants were instructed on MCII in weekly sessions and encouraged to apply it in testing and other situations in their daily lives. Both the MCII group and the control group were given speaking tests at the beginning and end of the six weeks, and anxiety levels were tested at each of these speaking tests. Anxiety was measured using two methods: a self-assessment, the Foreign Language Anxiety Scale, and a physiological measure of anxiety, saliva cortisol level. All students were interviewed by a trained speaking rater, and their cortisol levels were tested before and after the testing experiences at the beginning and end of the study period. We compared anxiety levels for the treatment (MCII) and control groups. Results showed that cortisol levels among treatment and control groups did not have a significant difference. However, the experiment group that had received MCII treatment reported lower levels of anxiety than the control. This suggests that MCII can lower the level of test anxiety perceived by students.

Denna studie undersöker diskurser kring kultur och språkinlärning i Läroplanen för grundskolan, förskolan och fritidshemmet (Lgr11) i alla delar som rör grundskolans senare år och i alla ämnen utom språkämnen. Studiens bakgrund fokuserar på diskurser om ämnet Svenska som andraspråk (sva) och använder teorier om kritisk diskursanalys, kulturella erbjudanden från Torpsten (2008) för att fokusera diskursanalysen som används för att analysera materialet (Lgr11). Resultatet visar att Lgr11 har motsägelsefulla diskurser rörande kultur, och att den är öppen för tolkning, detta speglar Torpstens analys av tidigare kursplaner. Vikten av språkutveckling i alla ämnen är, med några undantag, en tydlig diskurs genom hela Lgr11. / The aim of this study is to find discourses about culture and language learning in the Swedish Curriculum for the compulsory school, preschool class and school-age educare (abbreviated Lgr11) in all parts that is aimed for the later ages of compulsory school except the curricula for language courses. The background of the study focuses on discourses about the subject Swedish as a second language (abbreviated sva) and uses critical discourse theory and theory about cultural possibilities from Torpsten (2008) to focus the discourse analysis used to analyze the material (Lgr11). The results show that the discourses about views on culture in Lgr11 are contradictory and open for interpretation, which reflects the findings in earlier curricula from Torpsten. The need for teaching language in all subjects is, with some exceptions, a clear discourse throughout the whole of Lgr11.

The purpose of this study is to find out whether pupils English language learning benefits from using Swedish during the English lessons. I decided to collect my material from interviews in combination with classroom observations. I chose to start with the observation of the class and the teacher during one lesson before I did my interview. It is difficult to draw any conclusions of this with only the two schools I visited. If I were to do it again I would have chosen two schools that both start teaching English at the same age and devote the same amount of time each week to learning English. I did not discover any findings to support my theory that it would be beneficial to exclude Swedish during English lessons, nor did I find the opposite. The teachers from the observations felt it was necessary to use Swedish during the English lessons with the argument that it helped them learn Swedish better. Since that was not exactly my question I felt that my findings were inconclusive.

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