The photocatalytic activity of semiconductor metal oxides can be improved by the addition of sensitizer which enhances the band gap by considerable red shift of the absorption edge of semiconductor. In the present study, the effect of ascorbic acid as sensitizer on the photocatalytic activity of titania-silica binary mixtures was studied. The SiO2-TiO2 mixtures having 50wt%Ti:Si composition were prepared with sol-gel method. The surface area and porosity of the samples were modified by using various amounts of polyethylene glycol (PEG) as template. The thin films of the samples were obtained by dip coating of glass plates to colloidal solutions. The samples were characterized by methylene blue adsorption method and UV-Vis spectrophotometry. The photocatalytic activities of the samples were measured with methylene blue degradation, methyl orange degradation and direct water splitting in the presence and absence of ascorbic acid. Increase in the surface area and reaction rate with increasing PEG addition until a threshold value was observed. Highest methylene blue degradation activity was observed for 27g PEG added sol-gel derived film and surface area of this film is measured as 44m2/m2. Ascorbic acid presence shows a significant increase in the photocatalytic degradation activity of methyl orange. The sensitization effect of ascorbic acid was also compared with the effect of EDTA. It was found that the effect of ascorbic acid on the methyl orange degradation rate is significantly higher than the effect of EDTA. However, the effect of EDTA is more pronounced in water splitting reaction.

Introduction: Chronic pain after whiplash trauma (chronic WAD) to the neck is still a common clinical problem in terms of pain management, rehabilitation and insurance claims. In contrast to the increased knowledge concerning mechanisms of chronic pain in general, no clinical guidelines exist concerning assessment, pain control and rehabilitation of patients with chronic WAD. Aim: The general aim of this thesis was to use experimental techniques to better understand the complex mechanisms underlying chronic pain after whiplash trauma. The specific aims of papers I and II were mainly to use analgesic drugs with different target mechanisms alone or in combinations to assess their effects on pain intensity (VAS). Experimental pain techniques were used in all studies to assess deep tissue sensitivity (electrical, mechanical and chemical stimuli). Paper IV aimed at assessing deep tissue sensitivity to mechanical and chemical stimulation. The aim in paper III was to investigate if biochemical changes in interstitial muscle tissue (trapezius muscle) could be detected in WAD patients. Materials and Methods: The thesis is based on three different groups of patients with chronic WAD. In paper III and IV two different groups of healthy controls also participated. All patients were initially assessed in the pain and rehabilitation centre. In paper I (30 patients) and II (20 patients) two different techniques of drug challenges were used. In paper I: morphine, ketamine and lidocaine were used as single drugs. In paper II: remifentanil, ketamine and placebo were used in combinations and together with experimental pain assessments. Microdialysis technique was used in paper III (22 patients from study IV and 20 controls). In paper IV (25 patients and 10 controls) a new quantitative method, computerized cuff pressure algometry, was used in combination with intramuscular saline. In all papers, experimental pain techniques for deep tissue assessment (except cutaneous electrical stimulation in paper I) were used in different combinations: intramuscular hypertonic saline infusion, intramuscular electrical stimulation and pressure algometry. Results and Conclusion: There are multiple mechanisms behind chronic whiplash-associated pain, opioid sensitive neurons, NMDA-receptors and even sodium channels might play a part. A significant share of the patients were pharmacological non-responders to analgesic drugs targeting the main afferent mechanisms involved in pain transmission, this implies activation of different pain processing mechanisms (i.e. enhanced facilitation or changes in the cortical and subcortical neuromatrix). Experimental pain assessments and drug challenges together indicate a state of central hyperexcitability. Ongoing peripheral nociception (paper III), central sensitization and dysregulation of pain from higher levels in the nervous system may interact. These findings are likely to be present early after a trauma, however it is not possible to say whether they are trauma-induced or actually represents pre-morbid variations. Clinical trials with early assessments of the somatosensory system (i.e., using experimental pain) and re-evaluations, early intervention (i.e. rehabilitation) and intensified pain management could give further knowledge.

Με σκοπό να διερευνήσουμε τους μηχανισμούς επαγωγής απόπτωσης από την TRAIL και την επιλεκτικότητα την οποία δείχνει απέναντι στα καρκινικά κύτταρα, χρησιμοποιήσαμε κυτταρικές σειρές, προερχόμενες από το παχύ έντερο ανθρώπου, οι οποίες αντιπροσωπεύουν τα διάφορα στάδια της καρκινογένεσης, από το πρώιμο αδένωμα στο καρκίνωμα. Παρατηρήθηκε μια ανθεκτικότητα των πρώιμων αδενωμάτων απέναντι στην TRAIL σε αντίθεση με τα κύτταρα που προέρχονται από καρκίνους προχωρημένου σταδίου, ενώ σημαντικό ρόλο φαίνεται να παίζει, εκτός από το στάδιο καρκινογένεσης και η ύπαρξη ορισμένων ογκογονιδίων στον καθορισμό της ευαισθησίας των κυττάρων απέναντι στην TRAIL. Συγκεκριμένα, οι διάφορες ισομορφές του ογκογονιδίου RAS παίζουν ιδιαίτερο ρόλο τόσο όσο αφορά την ανταπόκριση του κύτταρου στην επαγωγή με TRAIL, όσο και στη ρύθμιση των μορίων που εμπλέκονται άμεσα στο μονοπάτι σηματοδότησης του TRAIL. Τα ογκογονίδια RAS παίζουν σημαντικό ρόλο στην καρκινική εξαλλαγή ενεργοποιώντας μια σειρά από μονοπάτια σηματοδότησης που οδηγούν στην ανεξέλεγκτη κυτταρική διαίρεση και στην προστασία από τα αποπτωτικά σήματα. Εντούτοις, η TRAIL (Tumor Necrosis Factor Related Apoptosis Inducing Ligand) έχει τη δυνατότητα να προκαλεί απόπτωση κυρίως στα καρκινικά κύτταρα, ενεργοποιώντας τους υποδοχείς DR4 και DR5 (Death Receptors). Σε αυτή τη μελέτη δείξαμε ότι σε αδενοκαρκινώματα του παχέος εντέρου ανθρώπου η έκφραση των υποδοχέων της TRAIL ρυθμίζεται από την ενεργότητα της κινάσης MEK (MAPK/ERK Kinase). Η ευαισθησία στην TRAIL των κυτταρικών σειρών που χρησιμοποιήσαμε φάνηκε να συσχετίζεται με το βαθμό κακοήθους εξαλλαγής. Συγκεκριμένα, οι κυτταρικές σειρές AAC1 και RGC2, που προέρχονται απο πρώιμα αδενώματα και η κυτταρική σειρά Caco2, που προέρχεται απο μέσο αδένωμα παρουσίασαν μεγάλη ανθεκτικότητα στην TRAIL. Αντίθετα, οι κυτταρικές σειρές DLD-1 και HT-29, που προέρχονται απο αδενοκαρκινώματα προχωρημένου στάδιου ήταν ευαίσθητες στην TRAIL. Επιλέχθηκε η κυτταρική σειρά Caco2 η οποία είναι ανθεκτική στην TRAIL και οι δύο κυτταρικές σειρές που προέρχονται από προχωρημένα αδενοκαρκινώματα για να εξεταστεί η έκφραση σημαντικών μορίων για την αποπτωτική σηματοδότηση από την TRAIL. Φάνηκε μια αντιστοιχία της έκφρασης των υποδοχέων DR4 και DR5 με την ευαισθησία των κυττάρων στην TRAIL, ενώ τα επίπεδα έκφρασης των FADD, κασπάση 8, κασπάση 3 και FLIP δεν παρουσίασαν παρόμοια αντιστοιχία. Επιπλέον, παρατηρήθηκε παρατεταμένη ενεργοποίηση των κινασών MEK, ERK, JNK1/2 και p38 μετά από επαγωγή με TRAIL, σε αντίθεση με την αντίστοιχη κινητική ενεργοποίησης των ίδιων κινασών μετά από επαγωγή με ορό. Αντίστοιχη κινητική με αυτή των ΜΕΚ και ERK παρουσίασε η έκφραση του γονιδίου c- FOS μετά από επαγωγή με TRAIL ή ορό. Τα κύτταρα Caco2, DLD-1 και HT- 29 επωάστηκαν με χημικούς αναστολείς των κινασών ΜΕΚ για 16 h και ελέγχθηκε η έκφραση των DR4 και DR5. Τα επίπεδα των DR4 και DR5 μειώθηκαν και στις τρεις κυτταρικές σειρές ως συνέπεια της αναστολής της ΜΕΚ, ενώ η αναστολή των ΜΕΚ δεν επιρρέασε τα επίπεδα των FADD, FLIP, κασπάση 8, κασπάση 3 και τον υποδοχέα FAS που ανήκει στην ίδια οικογένεια με τους DR4 και DR5. Επιπλέον, ελέγχθηκε με ανάλυση FACS η έκφραση των υποδοχέων DR4, DR5 και FAS in vivo σε ζωντανά κύτταρα που προεπωάστηκαν με τον αναστολέα της ΜΕΚ και στους αντίστοιχους μάρτυρες και τα αποτελέσματα ήταν αντίστοιχα με αυτά των in vitro πειραμάτων. Οι παραπάνω παρατηρήσεις αποτελούν ισχυρές ενδείξεις για το συσχετισμό της ενεργοποίησης της οδού MEK/ERK/FOS με με την έκφραση των υποδοχέων DR4 και DR5 και με την ευαισθησία των κυττάρων στην TRAIL, καθώς κύτταρα HT-29 που προεπωάστηκαν με τον αναστολέα των ΜΕΚ παρουσίσαν μειωμένη ευαισθησία στην TRAIL. Για τον προσδιορισμό των διακριτών επιδράσεων των ογκογονιδίων RAS στον καρκίνο του παχέος εντέρου, διαμολύνθηκαν κύτταρα που προέρχονται από μέσο αδένωμα του παχέος εντέρου (Caco2) με τα ογκογονίδια Ki- και Ha-RAS. Μετά από εξέταση πολλών διαφορετικών κλώνων επιλέχθηκαν για λεπτομερέστερη ανάλυση κλώνοι οι οποίοι δεν υπερεκφράζουν την RAS σε πρωτεϊνικό επίπεδο πάνω από 3 φορές σε σχέση με την ενδογενή RAS των μητρικών κυττάρων. Επιπλέον, ελέγχθηκε αν οι κλώνοι που υπερεκφράζουν τις ογκογόνες RAS παρουσιάζουν αυξημένη σηματοδότηση προς μονοπάτια κυτταρικής σηματοδότησης που είναι γνωστό οτι ενεργοποιούνται από τις RAS. Τόσο οι κλώνοι Ki-RAS, όσο και οι Ha-RAS, έδειξαν να ενεργοποιούν τα μονοπάτια σηματοδότησης RAF/MEK/ERK και PI3K/AKT με τους Ha-RAS να προκαλούν ισχυρότερη ενεργοποίηση. Σχεδιάστηκαν πειράματα για τον καθορισμό του βαθμού της in vitro και in vivo κακοήθους εξαλλαγής. Τα πειράματα σε μαλακό άγαρ δείχνουν την αποτελεσματικότητα των καρκινικών κυττάρων να αναπτύσσονται δημιουργώντας αποικίες χωρίς να προσκολλώνται σε επιφάνεια. Οι δυο ισομορφές της RAS αύξησαν σημαντικά την ιδιότητα των Caco2 να σχηματίζουν αποικίες σε μαλακό άγαρ, ενώ η Ha-RAS παρουσίασε τη μεγαλύτερη ικανότητα. Για τον προσδιορισμό του βαθμού κακοήθους εξαλλαγής των κλώνων in vivo έγινε υποδόριος εμβολιασμός με περίπου 106 κύτταρα από τον κάθε κλώνο σε ποντίκια SCID. Τόσο η Κi-RASV12 όσο και η Ha-RASV12 αύξησαν την ικανότητα των Caco2 να σχηματίζουν όγκους σε ποντίκια SCID με την Ha-RAS να προκαλεί τον σχηματισμό περισσότερων και μεγαλύτερων όγκων. Για την περαιτέρω κατανόηση των μηχανισμών εξαλλαγής των κυττάρων από τα ογκογονίδια RAS αξιολογήθηκαν αποτελέσματα από ανάλυση γονιδιακών μικροσυστοιχιών. Μετά από ανάλυση του γονιδιακού προφίλ των CACO-RAS κλώνων και τα δυο ογκογονίδια βρέθηκαν να επάγουν την έκφραση γονιδίων που εμπλέκονται στην αγγειογένεση και στην προώθηση του καρκίνου, όπως τα γονίδια που κωδικοποιούν τους υποδοχείς VEGF και TGFβ. Σημειώνεται ότι μεταστατικοί δείκτες, όπως η Vimentin, που είναι και δείκτης της μετάβασης από επιθηλιακό σε μεσεγχυματικό φαινότυπο, βρέθηκαν να υπερεκφράζονται μόνο στους κλώνους Ha-RASV12. Ο in vitro και in vivo χαρακτηρισμός εξαλλαγμένων κυττάρων από τα ογκογονίδια RAS, καθώς και η ανάλυση μικροσυστοιχειών γονιδίων έδειξε ότι στο κυτταρικό μοντέλο που χρησιμοποιήθηκε το ογκογονίδιο Ha-RAS έχει αυξημένες εξαλλακτικές ιδιότητες. Τα ογκογονίδια RAS αύξησαν το βαθμό κακοήθους εξαλλαγής των κυττάρων Caco2 και ελέγχθηκε αν αυτό συνοδεύεται από αυξημένη ευαισθησία των κλώνων CACO2-RAS στην TRAIL. Μετρήθηκε η βιωσημότητα των κλώνων CACO2-RAS μετά από επαγώγη με TRAIL και φάνηκε ότι και τα δύο ογκογονίδια αύξησαν την ανταποκρισιμότητα των κυττάρων Caco2 στην TRAIL. Τα Caco2 που εξαλλάχθηκαν με την Ki- RASV12 ήταν λιγότερο ευαίσθητα στην TRAIL από ότι αυτά με τη Ha- RASV12 σε όλους τους κλώνους που ελέγχθηκαν. Ο έλεγχος της έκφρασης σημαντικών παραγόντων για την απόπτωση από την TRAIL έδειξε ότι οι πρωτεΐνες που παρουσίασαν τις μεγαλύτερες διαφοροποιήσεις στους κλώνους που υπερεκφράζουν τις RAS, σε σχέση με τα κύτταρα μάρτυρα, ήταν οι υποδοχείς DR4 και DR5. Παρόλο που οι κλώνοι Ha-RAS παρουσίασαν μεγαλύτερη ευαισθησία στην TRAIL, τα επίπεδα έκφρασης των DR4 και DR5 ήταν παρόμοια μεταξύ των κλώνων Ki-RAS και Ha-RAS. Για να ελεγχθεί κατά πόσο το μονοπάτι σηματοδότησης MEK/ERK παίζει ρόλο στην υπερέκφραση των υποδοχέων από τα ογκογονίδια RAS χρησιμοποιήθηκαν χημικοί αναστολείς της ΜΕΚ και ελέγθηκε η επίδρασή τους στα επίπεδα των DR4 και DR5. H χημική αναστολή της ΜΕΚ προκάλεσε μείωση των επιπέδων των φωσφορυλιωμένων ERK1/2 και των επιπέδων έκφρασης των DR4 και DR5 τόσο στους CACO-Κ15, όσο και στους CACO-Η2. Τέλος, ελέγχθηκε κατά πόσο η μείωση των DR4 και DR5 από την χημική αναστολή των ΜΕΚ μπορέι να έχει επίδραση στη δράση της TRAIL απέναντι στους κλώνους CACO2-RAS και βρέθηκε ότι προεπώση των Ha-RASV12 κλώνων για 16 h με χημικό αναστολέα των ΜΕΚ μέιωσε σημαντικά την ευαισθησία τους στην TRAIL. / In order to study the mechanism by which TRAIL (Tumor Necrosis Factor Related Apoptosis Inducing Ligand) induces apoptosis almost exclusively to cancer cells we used human colon cancer cell lines that represent different stages of carcinogenesis, from early adenoma to carcinoma. It was observed that early adenoma cells were resistant to TRAIL-induced apoptosis. On the contrary, cells that were derived from carcinomas were sensitive; while a correlation of the sensitivity of the cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis to the presence of certain activated oncogenes was observed. In particular, the various isoforms of RAS oncogenes appear to play an important role in the responsiveness of the cancer cells to TRAIL as well as in regulating specific components which are essential for TRAIL signaling. RAS oncogenes play an important role in oncogenic transformation by activating various signaling pathways that favor tumor growth also by controlling cell division and resistance to apoptotic stimuli. TRAIL, however, has the unique ability to cause apoptosis preferentially to cancer cells by activating DR4 and DR5 receptors. In this study we show that in human colorectal adenocarcinomas cells the expression of DR4 and DR5 is partially regulated by the activity of MEK (MAPK/ERK Kinase). The sensitivity of the cell lines to TRAIL seemed to be correlated with the level of oncogenic transformation of the cells. In particular, the AAC1 and RGC2 cell lines that were derived from early adenomas and the Caco2 cell line that was derived from an intermediate adenoma were very resistant to TRAIL induced apoptosis. On the contrtary, the DLD-1 and HT-29 cell lines, which came from advanced stage carcinomas were sensitive to TRAIL. The Caco2 cell line, which is resistant to TRAIL and the cell lines that derived from advanced stage adenocarcinomas were chosen for expression analysis of important molecules in TRAIL-induced apoptosis. There was a correlation of DR4 and DR5 expression with the sensitivity of the cell lines to TRAIL, while the expression levels of FADD, Caspase 3, Caspase 8 and FLIP did not seem to correlate with TRAIL sensitivity in these cell lines. In addition, it was observed a prolonged activation of MEK, ERK1/2, JNK1/2 and p38 after induction with TRAIL, which did not follow the kinetics of serum-induced activation of ERK1/2. The activation of MEK and ERK1/2 was correlated to the kinetics of c-FOS proto-oncogene expression induced by TRAIL or serum. The expression levels of DR4 and DR5 were analysed after incubation for 16 h of the Caco2, DLD-1 and HT-29 cell lines with MEK inhibitors. There was a decrease of DR4 and DR5 expression levels in response to MEK inhibition, while the expression levels of FADD, Caspase 3, Caspase 8, FLIP and FAS receptor were not affected. Moreover, FACS analysis of living cells showed that MEK inhibition reduces the levels of DR4 and DR5 but not of other receptors of the same family, in vivo. It appears that the activation of the MEK/ERK/FOS axis plays a role in the positive feedback loop of TRAIL its receptors DR4 and DR5. To determine the distinct effects of different RAS oncogenes in cancer cells colon intermediate adenoma cells (Caco2) were chosen for transfection with the Ki- and Ha-RAS oncogenes. Clones that did not express more than 3 times the endogenous levels of RAS proteins were selected for further analysis. In addition it was examined whether the CACO2-RAS clones are able to activate the RAF/MEK/ERK and PI3K/AKT pathways, which are known effectors of RAS proteins. Both RAS isoforms activated these two pathways with the Ha-RASV12 clones presenting better potential in activating both RAF/MEK/ERK and PI3K/AKT pathways. In order to characterize the in vitro and in vivo oncogenic potential the ability of the CACO2-RAS clones to grow in soft agar and to grow tumors in nude mice was examined. The in vitro and in vivo characterization of the Caco2 RASV12-transformed cells showed that the Ha-RAS oncogene has a higher in vitro and in vivo transforming ability relative to the Ki-RAS oncogene in these cells. Results from cDNA microarray analysis were evaluated in order to further understand the mechanisms by which the RAS oncogenes cause oncogenic transformation. Gene expression profile analysis of the CACO2-RAS clones showed that both oncogenes induced expression of genes involved in angiogenesis and tumor promotion such as VEGF and TGFβ. Notably, metastatic markers, such as Vimentin, which is also an epithelial to mesenchymal transition marker, were overexpressed only in the Caco2 cells transformed with the Ha-RAS oncogene. The RAS oncogenes increased the oncogenic potential of the Caco2 cells and it was examined if the increased oncogenic potential correlated with increased sensitivity to TRAIL. Moreover, the examination of the expression levels of molecules important for TRAIL singnaling showed that Ki-RAS as well as Ha-RAS oncogenes can induce DR4 and DR5 expression with similar efficiency. However, in spite of similar induction of DR4 and DR5 by the two RAS oncogenes, the Ki-RAS-transformed cells were less susceptible to TRAIL induced apoptosis. Finally, in order to see whether the increased MEK/ERK activation observed in the CACO-RAS clones played a role in increasing DR4 and DR5 levels the CACO-RAS clones were incubated for 16h in the presence of MEK inhibitors. MEK inhibition resulted in decreased DR4 and DR5 expression levels, as well as decreased sensitivity of the clones to TRAIL induced apoptosis.

Prior work from our laboratory has shown that the spinal cord is capable of supporting a simple form of instrumental (response-outcome) learning. In a typical experiment, animals are given a spinal transection at the second thoracic vertebra, and tested 24 h after surgery. If animals are given shock when their leg is in a resting position (controllable shock), they quickly learn to maintain the leg in a flexed position, thereby minimizing shock exposure. Animals exposed to shock that is independent of leg position (uncontrollable shock) fail to learn. This learning deficit can be induced by as little as 6 minutes of shock to either limb or to the tail, and lasts for up to 48 h. The aim of this dissertation was to explore whether the deficit shares behavioral features and pharmacological mechanisms similar to those involved in the induction of neuropathic pain. Work within the pain literature has identified a spinal hyperexcitability that is induced by intense stimulation of pain fibers. This phenomenon, known as central sensitization, is characterized by an increase in tactile reactivity (allodynia) that can be induced by shock or peripheral inflammation. Pharmacological findings have revealed that central sensitization depends on the activation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). Experiment 1 showed that uncontrollable shock induces a tactile allodynia similar to that observed in central sensitization. Experiment 2 showed that peripheral inflammation caused by a subcutaneous injection of formalin generates a dose-dependent deficit. Experiment 3 indicated that the formalin-induced deficit was observed 24 h after delivery of the stimulus. Experiments 4-8 revealed that the NMDA and group I mGluRs are involved in the deficit. The NMDA receptor was found to be necessary (Experiment 4), but only sufficient to induce a deficit at neurotoxic doses (Experiment 5). Both of the group I mGluRs (subtypes, mGluR1 and mGluR5) were found to be necessary (Experiments 6 & 7). A general group I mGluR agonist summated with a subthreshold intensity of shock to produce a robust deficit (Experiment 8), suggesting shock and mGluR activation produce a deficit through a common mechanism.

Dopamine D3 receptors (D3Rs) have been implicated in mediating behavioural sensitization to various drugs of abuse, but their role in ethanol (EtOH) sensitization has not been directly examined. Neil Richtand proposed a role for D3Rs in the modulation of sensitization by acting as an inhibitor of D1/D2 receptor-mediated behaviours, and several reports suggest D3Rs up-regulate in response to chronic drugs of abuse. In separate experiments, we examined EtOH sensitization in D3R knockout (KO) as well as in D1R and D2R KO mice. We also examined amphetamine sensitization in D3R KOs compared to wild type mice. We challenged C57Bl/6 and DBA/2 mice with a D3R agonist (PD128907) and antagonist (U99194A) to examine how acute and chronic D3R activation and inactivation may affect the induction and expression of EtOH sensitization. We investigated D1/D3R interactions in sensitized and control mice and examined whether EtOH sensitization leads to changes in D3R binding using [125I]-7-OH-PIPAT autoradiography. Results showed that D3R KOs, were resistant to EtOH but not to amphetamine sensitization. Chronic but not acute D3R blockade with U99194A inhibited the induction, whereas acute D3R activation with PD128907 attenuated the expression of EtOH sensitization. In our D1/D3R interaction study we observed that although PD128907 attenuated D1 agonist-induced hyperactivity with SKF81297, this effect was the same in sensitized and control animals, even though sensitized mice were more responsive to PD128907 than controls. This enhanced response, which suggests a functional up-regulation of D3Rs, was not accompanied by changes in D3R binding as indicated by autoradiography, and could mean that functional changes in the D3R associated with EtOH sensitization occur elsewhere than at the level of the membrane-bound receptor. Taken together, these results suggest a modulatory role for the D3R in EtOH but not amphetamine sensitization, where D3R activation attenuates the expression and D3R blockade prevents the induction of EtOH sensitization. These results are important because a better understanding of the role of the D3R in EtOH sensitization may help not only to identify some of the underlying neural mechanisms of sensitization, but also help in the identification of treatment strategies for patients that may be susceptible to alcohol abuse.

<p>This qualitative study was conducted from June to November 2009, using designed questionnaires for sixty three (63) registered students and five (5) HIV program staff .The main reason for this study was to understand the underlying factors for why students may utilize or may not utilize the available HIV services on campus. The willingness of students to express their views was a positive finding in this study. Majority students who answered the questionnaires were quite aware of these HIV services. They also agreed that services provided are good. The study also found out that females utilized these services more than males and majority of students learnt of the HIV services from the HIV programs pamphlets and website thus indicating that the HIV program at UWC is function. However the research study also found out that the though students are aware of these services few utilize them and majority are females thus leaves a question why males do not utilize.</p>

The purpose of the research work, presented in this thesis is to offer a detailed atomic level study of interfaces created by adsorption of organic molecules on metals and metal oxides to point out significant impact of substrate, dye structure as well as different mediators on the charge transfer at these interfaces, which is proven to influence the device performance to a great extent. Adsorption of organic photosensitive molecules on metals and metal-oxides is the main focus of this thesis. Phthalocyanines which are organic semiconductors offer a broad range of properties, such as thermal and chemical stability, high charge mobility and strong absorption coefficient in the visible and near-IR regions, which make them very attractive to be applied in various systems and devices. Fuel cells, organic field-effect transistors (OFETs), organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) and solar cells are examples of phthalocyanine’s applications. The main focus of this work is to characterize the interfaces of Dye Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs). DSSC was invented by Michael Grätzel and Brian O’Regan in 1988. At the heart of this cell there is an oxide which is coated by a photosensitive dye. Under illumination, an electron is excited from HOMO to LUMO of the molecule, which can be further transferred to the conduction band of the oxide by a proper energy level alignment. The original state of the dye is regenerated by electron donation via the electrolyte, which usually is an organic solvent containing a redox couple e.g., iodide/triiodide. The iodide is regenerated by reduction of triiodide at the counter electrode. To improve the functionality of the cell, different additives can be added to the electrolyte. To mimic the interfaces of this cell, molecular layers of MPc (M: Fe, Zn, Mg) are adsorbed on both metallic surfaces, Au(111) and Pt(111), and rutile TiO2(110). Layers of iodine were inserted between metallic substrates and dyes to investigate the electronic properties and charge transfer at these multi-interface systems. 4-tert-butyl pyridine is a significant additive to the electrolyte and has proven to enhance the cell’s performance. This molecule was also adsorbed on Pt(111) and TiO2(110). Phthalocyanines were deposited by organic molecular beam deposition and 4TBP was evaporated at room temperature. Surface structures and reconstructions were confirmed by LEED measurements. Surface sensitive synchrotron radiation based spectroscopy methods, XPS and NEXAFS were applied to characterize these surfaces and interfaces. STM images directly give a topographical and electronic map over the surface. All measurements were carried out in UHV condition. When MPc was adsorbed on Au(111) and TiO2(110), charge transfer from molecule to substrate is suggested, while the opposite holds for MPc adsorbed on Pt(111). Moreover, stronger interaction between MPc and Pt(111) and TiO2(110) compared to Au(111) also demonstrates the effect of substrate on the charge transfer at the interface. The stronger interaction observed for these two substrates disturbed the smooth growth of a monolayer; it also resulted in bending of the molecular plane. Interaction of MPc with metallic surfaces was modified by inserting iodine at the interface. Another substrate-related effect was observed when MgPc was adsorbed on TiO2(110);  and -cross linked surfaces, where the surface reconstruction directly affect the molecular configuration as well as electronic structure at the interface. Besides, it is shown that the d-orbital filling of the central metal atom in MPc plays an important role for the properties of the molecular layer as well as charge transfer at the interface. Upon adsorption of 4TBP on Pt(111), C-H bond is dissociatively broken and molecules is adsorbed with N atoms down. Modification of surface by iodine, prevent this dissociation. In the low coverage of iodine, there is a competition between 4TBP and iodine to directly bind to Pt(111). Investigation on the adsorption of 4TBP on TiO2(110) illustrated that these molecules in low coverage regime, prefer the oxygen vacancy sites and their adsorption on these sites, results in a downward band bending at the substrate’s surface. / <p>QC 20131203</p>

Dopamine D3 receptors (D3Rs) have been implicated in mediating behavioural sensitization to various drugs of abuse, but their role in ethanol (EtOH) sensitization has not been directly examined. Neil Richtand proposed a role for D3Rs in the modulation of sensitization by acting as an inhibitor of D1/D2 receptor-mediated behaviours, and several reports suggest D3Rs up-regulate in response to chronic drugs of abuse. In separate experiments, we examined EtOH sensitization in D3R knockout (KO) as well as in D1R and D2R KO mice. We also examined amphetamine sensitization in D3R KOs compared to wild type mice. We challenged C57Bl/6 and DBA/2 mice with a D3R agonist (PD128907) and antagonist (U99194A) to examine how acute and chronic D3R activation and inactivation may affect the induction and expression of EtOH sensitization. We investigated D1/D3R interactions in sensitized and control mice and examined whether EtOH sensitization leads to changes in D3R binding using [125I]-7-OH-PIPAT autoradiography. Results showed that D3R KOs, were resistant to EtOH but not to amphetamine sensitization. Chronic but not acute D3R blockade with U99194A inhibited the induction, whereas acute D3R activation with PD128907 attenuated the expression of EtOH sensitization. In our D1/D3R interaction study we observed that although PD128907 attenuated D1 agonist-induced hyperactivity with SKF81297, this effect was the same in sensitized and control animals, even though sensitized mice were more responsive to PD128907 than controls. This enhanced response, which suggests a functional up-regulation of D3Rs, was not accompanied by changes in D3R binding as indicated by autoradiography, and could mean that functional changes in the D3R associated with EtOH sensitization occur elsewhere than at the level of the membrane-bound receptor. Taken together, these results suggest a modulatory role for the D3R in EtOH but not amphetamine sensitization, where D3R activation attenuates the expression and D3R blockade prevents the induction of EtOH sensitization. These results are important because a better understanding of the role of the D3R in EtOH sensitization may help not only to identify some of the underlying neural mechanisms of sensitization, but also help in the identification of treatment strategies for patients that may be susceptible to alcohol abuse.

Résumé : Depuis la caractérisation de la schizophrénie, les cliniciens ont noté une sensibilité anormale à la douleur chez leurs patients. D’un autre côté, la littérature publiée sur le sujet est plutôt inconsistante concernant la nature du changement de douleur rapportée. Dans un effort pour mieux caractériser le profil de réponse à la douleur dans la schizophrénie, nous avons donné des stimulations nociceptives aiguës et prolongées (à répétition rapide; sommation temporelle) à des patients souffrant de schizophrénie et à des sujets sains. En mesurant le score de douleur subjective et la réponse du réflexe de flexion nociceptif en réponse à des stimulations électriques transcutanées, il a été possible d’évaluer la contribution des circuits spinaux à la douleur chez les patients et les sujets sains. Les résultats révèlent une sensibilité augmentée à la douleur aiguë chez les patients atteints de schizophrénie (i.e., un seuil de détection de la douleur plus bas que les sujets sains) mais aussi une diminution de la sommation temporelle de la douleur quand les stimuli se répètent fréquemment. Les différences intergroupes dans l’expérience subjective à la douleur n’étaient pas accompagnées d’une différence dans l’amplitude du réflexe nociceptif, suggérant ainsi une origine supra-spinale du phénomène observé. Il est intéressant de noter que les symptômes positifs de la schizophrénie étaient corrélés négativement avec les scores de seuil de douleur chez les patients atteints de schizophrénie, suggérant que les distorsions de la pensée et des fonctions peuvent être reliées à une augmentation de la sensibilité à la douleur aiguë dans la schizophrénie. Ces résultats suggèrent la présence d’un profil de sensibilité à la douleur unique chez les patients atteints de schizophrénie ayant des répercussions importantes pour les pratiques cliniques. // Abstract : Ever since the characterization of schizophrenia, clinicians have noted abnormal pain sensitivity in their patients. The published literature, however, is inconsistent concerning the nature of the change reported. In an effort to better characterize the pain response profile of schizophrenia patients, we provided both acute and prolonged (i.e., rapidly-repeating: temporal summation) painful stimuli to schizophrenia patients and healthy controls. By measuring subjective pain ratings and nociceptive flexion reflexes in response to transcutaneous electrical stimulations of the sural nerve, it was possible to evaluate the contribution of spinal circuits to pain in patients and controls. Results revealed increased sensitivity to acute pain in schizophrenia patients (i.e., lower pain detection thresholds for schizophrenia patients than for controls), but decreased temporal summation of pain when painful stimuli repeated frquently. Group differences in subjective experience were not accompanied by group differences in nociceptive flexion reflex activity, suggesting supra-spinal origins to the change in pain experienced by patients. Interestingly, positive symptoms correlated negatively with pain threshold values among patients, suggesting that distortions of thought and function relate to pain sensitivity in schizophrenia. These results indicate the presence of a unique pain response profile for schizophrenia patients which have important implications for clinical practice.

Background: The augmented whole body glucose uptake response to insulin during the postprandial state is described as meal-induced sensitization (MIS). MIS occurs when the presence of food in the upper gastrointestinal tract (GIT) activates two feeding signals (activation of hepatic parasympathetic nerves and elevation of hepatic glutathione level), and causes insulin to release hepatic insulin sensitizing substance (HISS), which stimulates glucose uptake in peripheral tissues. The impairment of HISS release results in the absence of meal-induced insulin sensitization (AMIS), causing progression to a cluster of metabolic, vascular, and cardiac dysfunction, which we refer to as components of the AMIS syndrome. Objectives: The objective of my doctoral research was to study the manipulation of the HISS-pathway, in age- and diet-induced AMIS models, with exercise ± antioxidants. Also, in a separate project I studied the signaling pathways involved with the HISS action in skeletal muscle. Methods: The 7-day voluntary running was used as exercise intervention to manipulate the HISS pathway in healthy and prediabetic rats. The interaction of an antioxidant cocktail, SAMEC (S-adenosylmethionine + vitamin E + vitamin C), with the effects of exercise on postprandial insulin response was studied. Moreover, in the signaling studies the insulin and 5'-adenosine monophosphate activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathways were examined to test their possible involvement with the HISS action in skeletal muscle. Results: Voluntary running-wheel exercise for 7 days increases the postprandial glucose uptake response to insulin in health and in prediabetes through enhancement/restoration of HISS action. Supplementation with SAMEC during 7 days of exercise does not either harm or add benefits to the positive effects of exercise on insulin sensitivity. Finally, the signaling studies indicate that HISS increases the rate of glycogen synthesis in muscle through an insulin/AMPK-independent pathway.