This thesis develops and explores two methodologies to assess earthquake ground shaking in southwestern British Columbia based on 1D soil layering and 3D basin structure. To assess site response based on soil layering, microtremor array measurements were conducted at two sites of contrasting geology to estimate Rayleigh-wave dispersion curves. A Bayesian inversion algorithm is developed to invert the dispersion data for the shear-wave velocity (VS) profile together with quantitative uncertainty estimates, accounting rigorously for data error covariance and model parameterization selection. The recovered VS profiles are assessed for reliability by comparison with invasive VS measurements at each site with excellent agreement. Probabilistic site response analysis is conducted based on a sample of VS profiles drawn from the posterior probability density of the microtremor inversion. The quantitative uncertainty analysis shows that the rapid and inexpensive microtremor array method provides sufficient resolution of soil layering for practical characterization of earthquake ground motion. To assess the effects of 3D Georgia basin structure on long-period (> 2 s) ground motion for large scenario earthquakes, numerical 3D finite difference modelling of viscoelastic wave propagation is applied. Both deep (> 40 km) subducting Juan de Fuca plate and crustal (5 km) North America plate earthquakes are simulated in locations congruent with known seismicity. Simulations are calibrated by comparing synthetic waveforms with 36 selected strong- and weak-motion seismograms of the 2001 MW 6.8 Nisqually earthquake. The ratio between predicted peak ground motions in models with and without Georgia basin sediments is applied as a quantitative measure of basin amplification. Steep edges in the upper 1 km of the northwest and southeast extents of the basin are coincident with the appearance of surface waves. Focussing of north-to-northeast propagating surface waves by shallow (< 1 km) basin structure increases ground motion in a localized region of southern Greater Vancouver. This effect occurs for both types of earthquakes located south-southwest of Vancouver at distances greater than ~80 km. The predicted shaking level is increased up to 17 times and the duration of moderate shaking (> 3.4 cm/s) is up to 16 times longer due to the 3D Georgia basin structure. / Graduate

Hospitals are regarded as some of the most important structures in society due to the service that they provide. Knowing this, governments spend large amounts of money on these facilities. Also, codes of design require to provide them more reserve capacity than that for conventional structures. However, large damages (such as collapses and permanent or temporary interruptions of their functionality) have still been observed in hospitals during strong earthquakes. Unfortunately, it is precisely after this type of event that their service is in high demand and failure in providing that service could lead to further disastrous or fatal consequences. Therefore, the use of protective technologies, combined with rational procedures of design, would help to reduce damage and probable losses of functionality in hospital structures. In this thesis, a procedure for seismic design of structures equipped with a type of protective technology, namely, buckling-restrained braces (BRBs), is proposed. Then, the results of experimental and numerical studies are presented to understand the benefits of using BRBs in structures. This study highlights that BRBs are very effective to dissipate seismic energy and can act as structural fuses, i.e. disposable devices that may be replaced after an earthquake without interruptions in the functionality of the structure. One of the advantages of the proposed procedure is that it takes into account explicitly the characteristics and contributions of both, the main structure and the BRBs. It is based on the assumption that a structure protected with BRBs can rationally be represented by a dual SDOF system whose parts yield at different displacement levels. Other advantages include: 1) better control of the displacement demands on the structure; 2) achievement of the fuse concept beforehand; and 3) rapid assessment of the probabilistic performance of the structure. The experimental studies consisted of testing steel and concrete models, with and without BRBs, on a shaking table. In addition to calibrate and validate the proposed method of design, the tests have helped to find that, due to BRBs: 1) the damping ratio is increased significantly; and 2) the dynamic response, to ground motions characteristic of the lakebed zone of Mexico City, is reduced in terms of lateral displacements, inter-storey drifts, floor velocities and floor accelerations. The numerical studies are: 1) a study of the response of typical hospitals improved with BRBs; 2) a study of residual displacements in conventional and dual systems; and 3) evaluation of the economic benefits of using BRBs in structures. On these studies, hypothetical hospitals located in the lakebed zone of Mexico City were considered. The results show that the use of BRBs is very beneficial in medium- and low-rise buildings, while adverse effects may be observed in high-rise structures.

Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which soil loses a large percentage of its shear resistance due to increased pore water pressure and flows like a liquid. Undrained cyclic loading conditions during earthquakes cause liquefaction of soils, which can lead to catastrophic failures such as bearing capacity failures, slope failures and lateral spreads. The concepts and mechanisms of liquefaction were studied extensively by many researchers. Though the factors affecting the liquefaction response of soils during earthquakes are well documented in literature, there are still some gray areas in understanding the individual and combined effects of factors like frequency, gradation, fines content and surcharge pressure on the initiation of liquefaction. The objective of this thesis is to study the influence of ground motion, soil and site parameters on the initiation of liquefaction in saturated sand beds through laboratory shaking table model tests and numerical studies. Shaking table tests are carried out using a uniaxial shaking table on sand beds of 600 mm thickness. The initiation of liquefaction was observed and identified by measuring the pore water pressure developed during the sinusoidal cyclic loading. Free field liquefaction studies are carried out on sand beds to study the influence of ground motion parameters, namely, input acceleration and frequency of shaking on liquefaction. These studies revealed that acceleration is one of the important parameters that can affect the initiation of liquefaction in sands. Increase in acceleration reduces the liquefaction resistance of sand and a small increase in acceleration can trigger liquefaction. Frequency of shaking did not affect the initiation of liquefaction at lower frequencies but a threshold frequency which triggered instant increase in the excess pore pressures is observed. Liquefaction caused slight initial amplification followed by de-amplification of accelerations due to the stiffness reduction in soils during liquefaction, the effect being more pronounced in the top layers of the sand bed. Pore water pressure ratios during dynamic loading decreased with depth below the surface of the sand bed due to the low initial effective vertical stress and upward transmission of pore pressure during undrained loading. Shaking table tests are carried out to study the influence of soil parameters such as relative density, thickness of dry overlying sand layer and gradation. Relative density of sand can influence the liquefaction potential of sand to a great extent, about 10% increase in relative density bringing down the probability of liquefaction by about 50%. With the increase in height of dry overlying sand layer, liquefaction potential has decreased nonlinearly. Change in grain size altered the pattern of liquefaction and pore pressure development and it is observed that the liquefaction in finer sands is influenced by the frequency of shaking to a larger extent. Surcharge pressure from building loads increased the liquefaction potential and heavier structures got liquefied at lower pore water pressure ratios. Significant post-liquefaction de-amplification was observed in sand beds with surcharge pressure. Parametric numerical analyses are carried out using finite difference program FLAC (Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua) with FINN model to measure pore water pressures in the sand bed. Results from numerical analyses with change in the acceleration, surcharge pressure and thickness of dry overlying layer agreed well with the experimental results. However, effect of frequency in numerical studies did not match with the experimental observations, because of the inherent boundary effects in the experimental models. Results from this thesis provided important insights into the development of pore water pressures in sand beds during cyclic loading events, apart from enhancing the understanding towards the effect of various ground motion, site and soil parameters on the initiation of liquefaction in sand beds.

La procédure d’évaluation des performances des structures en génie civil soumis à des tremblements de terre implique le développement des modèles mathématiques et des procédures d’analyse dynamique non-linéaire pour estimer les réponses sismiques. Le comportement hystérétique des structures est connu pour être fortement dépendante du modèle de l’assemblage. Dans le cas de chargement cyclique, la plastification cyclique, le phénomène de fatigue oligocyclique et la détérioration du comportement dus à la dégradation de rigidité ont été jugées importantes. Cela éventuellement conduit à une grande incertitude dans les réponses d’une structure. Dans ce contexte, un modèle d’endommagement basé sur la fatigue hystérétique est développé pour évaluer la performance sismique des ossatures en acier avec des assemblages boulonnés à plaque d’extrémité. Le modèle développé est un modèle hystérétique dégradant basé sur l’indicateur de dommage par fatigue oligocyclique. Une étude expérimentale du comportement d’un assemblage boulonné à plaque d’extrémité est réalisée pour analyser les effets du comportement en fatigue oligocyclique et pour développer un modèle de prédiction de durée de vie. Les essais de fatigue ont été effectués en utilisant un pot vibrant. Les résultats des essais expérimentaux de fatigue seront utilisés pour déduire les paramètres de la fatigue qui sont nécessaires pour développer le modèle hystérétique de l’assemblage boulonné. L’analyse des dommages sismiques est l’un des problèmes les plus difficiles dans des structures grandes et complexes, particulièrement celles en ossature avec des assemblages boulonnés à plaque d’extrémité. L’existence de dommages structuraux dans une structure conduit à la modification des modes de vibration et les valeurs propres globaux sont généralement sensibles à l’ampleur des dégâts sismiques locaux dans des assemblages boulonnés. Dans ce travail, une analyse temporelle non-linéaire qui tient compte des modes et des fréquences non-linéaires a été proposée. Selon cette approche, les modes et les fréquences non-linéaires peuvent être déterminés par une procédure itérative qui repose sur la méthode de linéarisation équivalente. L’introduction de la notion des modes non-linéaires a permis d’étendre la méthode de synthèse modale linéaire aux cas non-linéaires afin d’obtenir la réponse dynamique des systèmes non-linéaires. Dans un autre contexte expérimental, cette thèse présente les résultats d’essais sur une table vibrante. L’objectif des essais expérimentaux est de comprendre le comportement inélastique des structures en acier soumis à des charges dynamiques. Par ailleurs, ces essais sont également destinés à étudier les changements dans les paramètres modaux dus au développement du comportement élasto-plastique et du dommage par fatigue oligocyclique des assemblages boulonnés. Une simulation numérique non-linéaire du système est effectuée sur la base du modèle développé et l’approche numérique proposée. Une comparaison des résultats obtenus à partir de l’analyse numérique et ceux des essais de table vibrante est présentée. Cependant, l’analyse des dommages pour les ossatures en acier sous excitations sismiques aléatoires exige l’application d’un algorithme adéquat. Un algorithme a été développé pour évaluer la performance sismique des ossatures en acier. En utilisant cet algorithme, l’influence de la fatigue oligocyclique sur le comportement des assemblages boulonnés à plaques d’extrémité peut être étudiée. / The performance assessment procedure of civil engineering structures subjected to earthquakes involves the development of mathematical models and nonlinear dynamic analysis procedures to estimate seismic responses. The hysteretic behavior of structures was known to be strongly dependent on the connection model. In the case of cyclic loading, cyclic hardening, low cycle fatigue phenomena and deterioration of the behavior due to stiffness degradation were found to be important. This eventually led to high uncertainty in the responses of system. In this context, a Fatigue Damage-Based Hysteretic model is developed to evaluate the seismic performance of steel moment-resisting frames with end-plate connections. The developed model is a degrading hysteretic model based on the low cycle fatigue damage index. An experimental study of the behavior of a end-plate bolted connection is performed for analyzing the effects of low cycle fatigue behavior and developing a model for predicting life of end-plate bolted connection. The fatigue tests were conducted using a shaker. The experimental fatigue results will be used to derive the fatigue parameters that will be used to develop the hysteretic model of the bolted connection. Analysis of seismic damage is one of the most challenging problems in large and complex structures, particularly those in steel moment-resisting frame with end-plate bolted connections. The existence of structural damage in an engineering structure leads to the modification of vibration modes and global eigenvalues are usually sensitive to the degree of local damage seismic in bolted connections. In this work, a nonlinear time history analysis which takes into account nonlinear modes and frequencies was adopted. According to this approach, the nonlinear modes and frequencies can be determined by an iterative procedure which based on the method of equivalent linearization. The introduction of the notation of nonlinear modes permits an extension of the method of linear modal synthesis to nonlinear cases in order to obtain the dynamic response of nonlinear systems. In another experimental context, this thesis presents the results from shaking table tests of a two-story steel frame with end-plate bolted connections. The aim of the experimental tests is to understand the inelastic behavior of steel frame structures subjected to dynamic loads. Moreover, the purpose of these tests is also to study the changes in modal parameters due to the development of elasto-plastic behavior and low cycle fatigue damage in steel frame connections. A nonlinear numerical simulation of the system is performed based on the developed model and the proposed numerical approach. A comparison of the results obtained from numerical analysis and those of shake table testing is presented. However, the damage analysis for steel frames under random seismic excitations requires the application of an adequate algorithm. An algorithm was developed to assess the seismic performance of steel frames with bolted connections. Using this algorithm, the influence of low cycle fatigue damage in the behavior of end plate bolted connections can be studied.

Many agricultural fields that have received long-term applications of P often contain levels of P exceeding those required for optimal crop production. Knowledge of the effect of the P remaining in the soil (residual effect) is of great importance for fertilization management. In order to characterize P forms in soils, a wide variety of methods have been proposed. The use of dialysis membrane tubes filled with hydrous ferric oxide (DMT-HFO) has recently been reported as an effective way to characterize P desorption over a long-term in laboratoty studies. However, there is little information on the relationship between kinetics of P release using this new method and plant P uptake. This method consist of a procedure of shaking a sample for a long period of time there by exploiting the whole volume of the soil which is in contrast to the actual plant mode of uptake. This method has also practical limitations in employing it for a routine soil analysis, as it is very expensive and time consuming. The objectives of this study were (i) to study the changes in labile, non-labile and residual P using successive P desorption by DMT-HFO followed by a subsequent fractionation method (combined method) (ii) to assess how the information gained from P desorption kinetic data relates to plant growth at green house and field trials (iii) to investigate the effect of varying shaking time on DMT-HFO extractable P and (iv) to propose a short cut approach to the combined method. The release kinetics of the plots from long term fertilizer trials at the University of Pretoria and Ermelo were studied. P desorption kinetics were described relatively well by a two-component first-order model (R2 = 0.947, 0.918,&0.993 for NPK, MNK,&MNPK treatments respectively). The relative contributions of both the labile pool (SPA) and the less labile pool (SPB) to the total P extracted increased with increased P supply levels. Significant correlations were observed between the rate coefficients and maize grain yield for both soil types. The correlation between the cumulative P extracted and maize yield (r = 0.997**) however was highly significant for Ermelo soils. This method was also used to determine the changes in the different P pools and to relate these P fractions with maize yield. Highly significant correlations were observed between maize grain yield and the different P fractions including total P. In both soil types the contribution of both the labile and non-labile inorganic P fractions in replenishing the solution Pi was significant where as the contributions from the organic fractions were limited. The C/HCl-Pi is the fraction that decreased most in both cases as well. Investigation was carried out to evaluate the effect of varying shaking periods on the extractable DMT-HFO-Pi for UP soils of varying P levels. Four shaking options were applied. Significant difference was observed for the treatment of high P application. Shaking option 2 seemed relatively better than the others since it showed the strongest correlation. Thus for soils with high releasing kinetics and high total P content, provided that the P release from the soil is a rate limiting step, reducing the length of shaking time could shorten the duration one needs to complete the experiment with out influencing the predicting capacity of the methodology. The other objective of this thesis was also to present a short cut method alternative to the combined fractionation method. Comparison of the sum of DMT-HFO-Pi, NaHCO3-Pi, NaOH-Pi, D/HCl-Pi and C/HCl-Pi extracted by a conventional step-by-step method with the sum of DMT-HFO-Pi and a single C/HCl-Pi extraction as a short cut approach for all extraction periods resulted in strong and significant correlations. The C/HCl-Pi fraction extracted by both methods was correlated with maize grain yield and it was found to be highly significant. This study revealed that this short cut approach could be a simplified and economically viable option to study the P dynamics of soils especially for soils where the P pool acting as a source in replenishing the labile portion of P is already identified. The method employed here therefore could act as an analytical tool to approximate successive cropping experiments carried out under green house or field condition. However, data from a wider range of soils is needed to evaluate the universality of this method. More work is also required in relating desorption indices of this method with yield parameters especially at field level. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Plant Production and Soil Science / PhD / unrestricted

Liquefaction is a major challenge in geotechnical engineering in which soil strength and stiffness are compromised due to earthquake activity. Understanding and predicting the behaviour and liquefaction susceptibility of soils under cyclic loading is a critical issue in civil engineering, mining and protective engineering. Numerous earthquake-induced ground failure events (e.g., substantial ground deformation, reduced bearing capacity) or liquefaction in natural fine-grained soils or manmade fine-grained soils (i.e., fine tailings) produced by mining activities have been observed and reported in the literature. Tailings are manmade soils that remain following the extraction of metals and minerals from mined ore in a mine processing plant. Traditionally, such tailings are stored in surface tailings impoundments at the mine’s surface. However, geotechnical and environmental risks and consequences related to conventional tailings impoundments have attracted the attention of the engineering community to develop novel methods of tailings disposal and management to minimize geotechnical and environmental risks. Thus, engineers have introduced and implemented innovative tailings technologies—thickened tailings and paste tailings—as cost-effective means for tailings management in mining operations. As both thickened tailings and paste tailings have lower water content and higher solid content than tailings in conventional impoundments, these tailings may be more resistant to liquefaction. However, it should be noted that the seismic or cyclic behaviour of these thickened and paste tailings, with and without heavy rainfall effects, are not fully understood. There is little technical information or data about the behaviour and liquefaction of thickened and paste tailings under seismic or cyclic loading conditions. The objective of the present PhD research is to investigate the response of layered thickened and paste tailings deposits, with and without heavy rainfall effects, to cyclic loads by conducting shaking table tests. To simulate the field deposition of thickened and paste tailings, tailings were deposited in three thin layers in a flexible laminar shear box (FLSB) attached to the shaking table equipment. A sinusoidal seismic loading at a frequency of 1 Hz and peak horizontal acceleration of 0.13g was applied at the bottom of the layered tailings deposits. Acceleration, displacement and pore water pressure responses to the cyclic loading were monitored at the middle depth of each layer of the tailings deposits. Regarding the acceleration response of these thickened and paste tailings deposits (without the effect of heavy rainfall), there was no difference between the middle of the bottom and middle layers or at the base of the shaking table. However, the acceleration at the middle of the top layer differed from the acceleration at the base of the shaking table. Throughout shaking, the layered tailings deposits (with and without the effect of heavy rainfall) exhibited contraction and dilation responses. The excess pore water pressure ratios of the layered thickened tailings deposit that was not exposed to heavy rainfall prior to shaking were found to exceed 1.0 during shaking. However, for the layered paste tailings deposit that was not exposed to the effect of heavy rainfall prior to shaking, the excess pore water pressure ratios were found to be lower than 0.85 during shaking. This reveals that without the effect of heavy rainfall, the layered thickened tailings deposit was susceptible to liquefaction, whereas the layered paste tailings deposit was resistant to liquefaction during shaking. The excess pore water ratios of the layered thickened and the paste tailings deposits that were exposed to heavy rainfall prior to shaking were found to be lower than 0.8 during shaking. This reveals that with the effect of heavy rainfall, the layered thickened and paste tailings deposits were resistant to liquefaction during shaking. The results and findings of this PhD research thus provide valuable information for the implementation of tailings in earthquake-prone areas.

Sublevel caving operations at great depths are subjected both to large stress concentrations that are redistributed as the mining front progresses and to mining-induced seismicity. This is the case for Kiirunavaara mine, Sweden’s largest underground mine. Since the mine was declared seismically active in 2007 / 2008, large rockfalls controlled by structures have happened in many parts of the mine, despite the use of rock support systems designed for bearing dynamic loads. A novel layout for sublevel caving operations, internally named “fork layout” is being tested at a satellite mine. This layout was conceived to place the ore-parallel longitudinal footwall drifts further away from the contact between the orebody and footwall drifts. That way, the differential stresses that generate stress-related damages are expected to be reduced. However, the effect of implementing the fork layout on the hazard potential for structurally controlled rockfalls has not been studied in detail yet. Large rockfalls that occurred in different parts of the mine were analysed with respect to their structures, location of the damage event and type of excavation. The majority of these occurred at footwall drift intersections. Information from damage mapping and seismic events that triggered these rockfalls was used to generate a conceptual model that illustrates the relative spatial relation between the seismic source and damage location. In addition, the seismic source parameters of the events that triggered these rockfalls were processed using scaling laws to obtain ground motion parameters such as peak particle velocity and acceleration at the damage site. The effect of implementing the fork layout on rockfall hazard was tested in the intersections between footwall drifts and crosscuts (FD-CC), and intersections between access and footwall drifts (AD-FD) in two production blocks, using the traditional layout for sublevel caving mining as a point of comparison. Two different fork layouts were tested, FD-CC at 80° (or AD-FD at 100°) and FD-CC at 70° (or AD-FD at 110°). Structural data available from face mapping and oriented core logging was used to define predominant joint sets at the investigated blocks. Using the structural input, wedge volumes at the intersections were modelled deterministically and probabilistically in Unwedge. The variations in wedge volumes formed at the intersections between layouts were used as a proxy for rockfall potential, meaning that if a layout reduced the wedge size, the smaller the rockfall hazard if triggered by a seismic event, and vice versa. It was concluded that most rockfalls at the FD-CC intersections are controlled by structures from three major joint sets. It was observed that rockfalls at FD-CC intersections occurred more often at certain footwall drift orientations. Many seismic events that triggered these rockfalls are located close to the ore passes and generated ground accelerations between 0.5 to 10 times the gravity acceleration. Implementing fork layouts with FD-CC at 80° intersection angle generates larger wedges than the traditional layout and thus, scenarios with a higher rockfall hazard. On the other hand, using fork layouts with FD-CC at 70° intersection angle reduces wedge size at the southern FD-CC intersections; hence, the rockfall hazard is reduced in these intersections. In the northern FD-CC intersections, the wedge volumes are increased and thus, a higher rockfall potential is generated in these intersections. AD-FD at 110° intersection angle generates also a smaller rockfall hazard than the traditional layout in both production blocks.

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