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Introdução: A utilização da técnica endovascular para tratar as diversas afecções da aorta têm suplantado as técnicas abertas tradicionais, sendo particularmente promissora no trauma 1. A ruptura traumática da aorta é a segunda causa de morte por acidente de trânsito 2,3; e o reparo endoluminal dessas lesões com endopróteses apresenta menor taxa de mortalidade e paraplegia quando comparada a cirurgia aberta, no entanto os resultados a longo prazo ainda não estão disponíveis2-7. As próteses aprovadas e comercialmente disponíveis, até o momento desse estudo, foram desenhadas para doença aneurismática, com diâmetro muito superior ao diâmetro da aorta de jovens (vítimas de trauma). Esse sobredimensionamento (oversizing) pode levar a alteração mecânica na interação da prótese com a parede aórtica, comprometendo a vascularização e aumento o risco de complicações relacionadas ao implante de endopróteses 8-12. Objetivos: Analisar, a partir de um modelo animal experimental, o efeito biomecânico e histopatológico de quatro níveis diferentes de sobredimensionamento de endopróteses sobre a aorta não aterosclerótica, semelhante às encontradas em pacientes jovens vítimas de trauma. Método: O diâmetro da aorta torácica suína é semelhante ao da aorta de jovens adultos (18-20 mm), desta forma 25 porcos foram randomizados em 5 grupos: 1 controle (sem stent) e 4 grupos de sobredimensionamento (A: 10% -19 %, B: 20% -29%, C: 30% -39%, e D: >40% de sobredimensionamento). Dois tipos de testes biomecânicos foram realizados em todas as aortas 4 semanas após a implantação da endoprótese: \" z\" endoprótese; e o teste de biomecânica propriamente dito dos fragmentos aórticos coletados. Os fragmentos foram, então, submetidos a uma análise histológica e imunohistoquímica. Resultados: Os resultados do teste de destacamento, que avaliou a força necessária para remover o stent da aorta, foram semelhantes nos quatro grupos (A: 42 N, B: 41 N, C: 46 N e D: 46 N, p= 0,881204). O segundo teste foi realizado em três segmentos da aorta. Força máxima, estresse máximo e tensão máxima suportada pela parede da aorta tiveram uma correlação negativa e linear com o oversizing, isto é, quanto maior o oversizing, menor a resistência do fragmento à ruptura. Houve diferenças significativas em todos os quatro grupos, quando comparados com o grupo controle. A deformação máxima e o Strain, que refletem as propriedades elásticas da parede da aorta, foram muito semelhantes em todos os quatro grupos de sobredimensionamento. Mas, uma diminuição significativa da elasticidade foi encontrada quando comparados cada um dos grupos com o grupo controle (p= 0,0000001). A análise histológica e imunohistoquímica demonstrou que a parede da aorta tem uma perda significativa de fibras musculares e ?-actina com o aumento do sobredimensionamento (p= 0,000198 e p= 0,002031, respectivamente). A quantidade de fibra elástica apresentou uma queda significativa independente do sobredimensionamento (p= 0,0000001). Conclusões: Os quatro níveis de sobredimensionamento estudados não demonstraram diferenças significativas no teste de destacamento. Os testes biomecânicos dos fragmentos da aorta mostraram uma diminuição na resistência da parede aórtica proporcional ao aumento do oversizing. A elasticidade da parede aórtica sofre alteração significativa independente do sobredimensionamento utilizado. Os exames histopatológicos e imunohistoquímicos comprovaram o desarranjo na estrutura da parede aórtica com a utilização de endopróteses, resultando na diminuição da quantidade de fibras elásticas e musculares / Introduction: The use of endovascular techniques to treat the various disorders of the aorta has supplanted traditional open techniques, and is particularly promising in trauma1. The traumatic rupture of the aorta is the second leading cause of death by traffic accident2, 3, and repair of these lesions with endoluminal stents has showed lower mortality and paraplegia when compared to open surgery, however the long-term results are not yet available2-7. The endoprosthesis approved and commercially available during this study were designed to aneurysmal disease, with a diameter greater than the diameter of the aorta of young people ( ) \" z \" prosthesis with the aortic wall, affecting the vascularization and raising the risk of complications related to stent-graft implantation8-12. Purpose: Analyze, from an experimental animal model, the biomechanical and histological effects of four different levels of stents-graft oversizing in non-atherosclerotic aortas; such as those aorta found in young individuals who undergo stent-graft repair for traumatic aortic injuries. Methods: The diameter of the porcine thoracic aorta is similar to the aorta of young adults (18-20 mm), so 25 pigs were randomized into 5 groups: 1 control (without stent-graft) and 4 oversizing groups (A: 10%-19%, B: 20%-29%, C: 30%-39%, and D: .40%). Two types of biomechanical tests were performed on all aortas 4 weeks after endoprosthesis deployment: The \"detachment\" of the stent, and the biomechanics test of aortic fragments collected. The fragments were submitted to a histological and an immunohistochemistry analysis. Results: The results of the detachment test, which analyzed the strength necessary to remove the stent-graft from the aorta, were similar in the 4 groups (A: 42 N, B: 41 N, C: 46 N e D: 46 N, p= 0,881204). The second test was performed in 3 aortic segments. Maximum strength, maximum stress, and maximum tension supported by the aortic wall had a negative and linear correlation with oversizing. There were significant differences in all 4 groups when compared with the control group. The maximum deformation and strain, which reflect the elastic properties of the aortic wall, were very similar in all 4 groups. But a significant decrease in elasticity was found when compared each group with the control group (p = 0.0000001). Histological and immunohistochemistry analysis supported that the aortic wall has a signifi-?-actin by increasing the oversize (p = 0.000198 p = 0.002031, respectively). The amount of elastic fiber showed a significant drop regardless of the oversizing (p = 0.0000001). Conclusion: The four levels of oversizing studied did not show significant differences in the detachment test. Biomechanical tests of the fragments of the aorta showed a decrease in resistance of the aortic wall with increase in oversize. The elasticity of the aortic wall undergoes significant change independent of the oversizing used. The histopathological and immunohistochemical examinations confirmed the breakdown in the structure of the aortic wall with the use of stents-graft, resulting in decreased amount of elastic and muscle fibers.

Introdução: A utilização da técnica endovascular para tratar as diversas afecções da aorta têm suplantado as técnicas abertas tradicionais, sendo particularmente promissora no trauma 1. A ruptura traumática da aorta é a segunda causa de morte por acidente de trânsito 2,3; e o reparo endoluminal dessas lesões com endopróteses apresenta menor taxa de mortalidade e paraplegia quando comparada a cirurgia aberta, no entanto os resultados a longo prazo ainda não estão disponíveis2-7. As próteses aprovadas e comercialmente disponíveis, até o momento desse estudo, foram desenhadas para doença aneurismática, com diâmetro muito superior ao diâmetro da aorta de jovens (vítimas de trauma). Esse sobredimensionamento (oversizing) pode levar a alteração mecânica na interação da prótese com a parede aórtica, comprometendo a vascularização e aumento o risco de complicações relacionadas ao implante de endopróteses 8-12. Objetivos: Analisar, a partir de um modelo animal experimental, o efeito biomecânico e histopatológico de quatro níveis diferentes de sobredimensionamento de endopróteses sobre a aorta não aterosclerótica, semelhante às encontradas em pacientes jovens vítimas de trauma. Método: O diâmetro da aorta torácica suína é semelhante ao da aorta de jovens adultos (18-20 mm), desta forma 25 porcos foram randomizados em 5 grupos: 1 controle (sem stent) e 4 grupos de sobredimensionamento (A: 10% -19 %, B: 20% -29%, C: 30% -39%, e D: >40% de sobredimensionamento). Dois tipos de testes biomecânicos foram realizados em todas as aortas 4 semanas após a implantação da endoprótese: \" z\" endoprótese; e o teste de biomecânica propriamente dito dos fragmentos aórticos coletados. Os fragmentos foram, então, submetidos a uma análise histológica e imunohistoquímica. Resultados: Os resultados do teste de destacamento, que avaliou a força necessária para remover o stent da aorta, foram semelhantes nos quatro grupos (A: 42 N, B: 41 N, C: 46 N e D: 46 N, p= 0,881204). O segundo teste foi realizado em três segmentos da aorta. Força máxima, estresse máximo e tensão máxima suportada pela parede da aorta tiveram uma correlação negativa e linear com o oversizing, isto é, quanto maior o oversizing, menor a resistência do fragmento à ruptura. Houve diferenças significativas em todos os quatro grupos, quando comparados com o grupo controle. A deformação máxima e o Strain, que refletem as propriedades elásticas da parede da aorta, foram muito semelhantes em todos os quatro grupos de sobredimensionamento. Mas, uma diminuição significativa da elasticidade foi encontrada quando comparados cada um dos grupos com o grupo controle (p= 0,0000001). A análise histológica e imunohistoquímica demonstrou que a parede da aorta tem uma perda significativa de fibras musculares e ?-actina com o aumento do sobredimensionamento (p= 0,000198 e p= 0,002031, respectivamente). A quantidade de fibra elástica apresentou uma queda significativa independente do sobredimensionamento (p= 0,0000001). Conclusões: Os quatro níveis de sobredimensionamento estudados não demonstraram diferenças significativas no teste de destacamento. Os testes biomecânicos dos fragmentos da aorta mostraram uma diminuição na resistência da parede aórtica proporcional ao aumento do oversizing. A elasticidade da parede aórtica sofre alteração significativa independente do sobredimensionamento utilizado. Os exames histopatológicos e imunohistoquímicos comprovaram o desarranjo na estrutura da parede aórtica com a utilização de endopróteses, resultando na diminuição da quantidade de fibras elásticas e musculares / Introduction: The use of endovascular techniques to treat the various disorders of the aorta has supplanted traditional open techniques, and is particularly promising in trauma1. The traumatic rupture of the aorta is the second leading cause of death by traffic accident2, 3, and repair of these lesions with endoluminal stents has showed lower mortality and paraplegia when compared to open surgery, however the long-term results are not yet available2-7. The endoprosthesis approved and commercially available during this study were designed to aneurysmal disease, with a diameter greater than the diameter of the aorta of young people ( ) \" z \" prosthesis with the aortic wall, affecting the vascularization and raising the risk of complications related to stent-graft implantation8-12. Purpose: Analyze, from an experimental animal model, the biomechanical and histological effects of four different levels of stents-graft oversizing in non-atherosclerotic aortas; such as those aorta found in young individuals who undergo stent-graft repair for traumatic aortic injuries. Methods: The diameter of the porcine thoracic aorta is similar to the aorta of young adults (18-20 mm), so 25 pigs were randomized into 5 groups: 1 control (without stent-graft) and 4 oversizing groups (A: 10%-19%, B: 20%-29%, C: 30%-39%, and D: .40%). Two types of biomechanical tests were performed on all aortas 4 weeks after endoprosthesis deployment: The \"detachment\" of the stent, and the biomechanics test of aortic fragments collected. The fragments were submitted to a histological and an immunohistochemistry analysis. Results: The results of the detachment test, which analyzed the strength necessary to remove the stent-graft from the aorta, were similar in the 4 groups (A: 42 N, B: 41 N, C: 46 N e D: 46 N, p= 0,881204). The second test was performed in 3 aortic segments. Maximum strength, maximum stress, and maximum tension supported by the aortic wall had a negative and linear correlation with oversizing. There were significant differences in all 4 groups when compared with the control group. The maximum deformation and strain, which reflect the elastic properties of the aortic wall, were very similar in all 4 groups. But a significant decrease in elasticity was found when compared each group with the control group (p = 0.0000001). Histological and immunohistochemistry analysis supported that the aortic wall has a signifi-?-actin by increasing the oversize (p = 0.000198 p = 0.002031, respectively). The amount of elastic fiber showed a significant drop regardless of the oversizing (p = 0.0000001). Conclusion: The four levels of oversizing studied did not show significant differences in the detachment test. Biomechanical tests of the fragments of the aorta showed a decrease in resistance of the aortic wall with increase in oversize. The elasticity of the aortic wall undergoes significant change independent of the oversizing used. The histopathological and immunohistochemical examinations confirmed the breakdown in the structure of the aortic wall with the use of stents-graft, resulting in decreased amount of elastic and muscle fibers.

This diploma thesis focuses on the implementation of waterproofing of underground constructions using an LLDPE membrane hinged on anchors. In the future, this method will replace the commonly used waterproofing system in Scandinavia with extruded polyethylene foam. This method of tunnel construction and waterproofing is compared with the NRTM method, often used in Central Europe. The thesis describes the installation of a waterproofing system, especially materials, accessories, welding devices and auxiliary installation equipment. The main focus of the thesis is to verify the reliability of the individual types of welds and to assess the waterproofing system in terms of implementation and environmental demands.

In recent years, due to growing environmental awareness, considerable attention has been given to the development and production of natural fibre reinforced polymer (both thermoset and thermoplastic) composites. The main objective of this study was to reinforce epoxy and polylactic acid (PLA) with hemp fibre to produce improved composites by optimising the fibre treatment methods, composite processing methods, and fibre/matrix interfacial bonding. An investigation was conducted to obtain a suitable fibre alkali treatment method to: (i) remove non-cellulosic fibre components such as lignin (sensitive to ultra violet (UV) radiation) and hemicelluloses (sensitive to moisture) to improve long term composites stability (ii) roughen fibre surface to obtain mechanical interlocking with matrices (iii)expose cellulose hydroxyl groups to obtain hydrogen and covalent bonding with matrices (iv) separate the fibres from their fibre bundles to make the fibre surface available for bonding with matrices (v) retain tensile strength by keeping fibre damage to a minimum level and (vi) increase crystalline cellulose by better packing of cellulose chains to enhance the thermal stability of the fibres. An empirical model was developed for fibre tensile strength (TS) obtained with different treatment conditions (different sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium sulphite (Na2SO3) concentrations, treatment temperatures, and digestion times) by a partial factorial design. Upon analysis of the alkali fibre treatments by single fibre tensile testing (SFTT), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), zeta potential measurements, differential thermal analysis/thermogravimetric analysis (DTA/TGA), wide angle X-ray diffraction (WAXRD), lignin analysis and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, a treatment consisting of 5 wt% NaOH and 2 wt% Na2SO3 concentrations, with a treatment temperature of 120oC and a digestion time of 60 minutes, was found to give the best combination of the required properties. This alkali treatment produced fibres with an average TS and Young's modulus (YM) of 463 MPa and 33 GPa respectively. The fibres obtained with the optimised alkali treatment were further treated with acetic anhydride and phenyltrimethoxy silane. However, acetylated and silane treated fibres were not found to give overall performance improvement. Cure kinetics of the neat epoxy (NE) and 40 wt% untreated fibre/epoxy (UTFE) composites were studied and it was found that the addition of fibres into epoxy resin increased the reaction rate and decreased the curing time. An increase in the nucleophilic activity of the amine groups in the presence of fibres is believed to have increased the reaction rate of the fibre/epoxy resin system and hence reduced the activation energies compared to NE. The highest interfacial shear strength (IFSS) value for alkali treated fibre/epoxy (ATFE) samples was 5.2 MPa which was larger than the highest value of 2.7 MPa for UTFE samples supporting that there was a stronger interface between alkali treated fibre and epoxy resin. The best fibre/epoxy bonding was found for an epoxy to curing agent ratio of 1:1 (E1C1) followed by epoxy to curing agent ratios of 1:1.2 (E1C1.2), 1: 0.8 (E1C0.8), and finally for 1:0.6 (E1C0.6). Long and short fibre reinforced epoxy composites were produced with various processing conditions using vacuum bag and compression moulding. A 65 wt% untreated long fibre/epoxy (UTLFE) composite produced by compression moulding at 70oC with a TS of 165 MPa, YM of 17 GPa, flexural strength of 180 MPa, flexural modulus of 10.1 GPa, impact energy (IE) of 14.5 kJ/m2, and fracture toughness (KIc) of 5 MPa.m1/2 was found to be the best in contrast to the trend of increased IFSS for ATFE samples. This is considered to be due to stress concentration as a result of increased fibre/fibre contact with the increased fibre content in the ATFE composites compared to the UTFE composites. Hygrothermal ageing of 65 wt% untreated and alkali treated long and short fibre/epoxy composites (produced by curing at 70oC) showed that long fibre/epoxy composites were more resistant than short fibre/epoxy composites and ATFE composites were more resistant than UTFE composites towards hygrothermal ageing environments as revealed from diffusion coefficients and tensile, flexural, impact, fracture toughness, SEM, TGA, and WAXRD test results. Accelerated ageing of 65 wt% UTLFE and alkali treated long fibre/epoxy (ATLFE) composites (produced by curing at 70oC) showed that ATLFE composites were more resistant than UTLFE composites towards hygrothermal ageing environments as revealed from tensile, flexural, impact, KIc, SEM, TGA, WAXRD, FTIR test results. IFSS obtained with untreated fibre/PLA (UFPLA) and alkali treated fibre/PLA (ATPLA) samples showed that ATPLA samples had greater IFSS than that of UFPLA samples. The increase in the formation of hydrogen bonding and mechanical interlocking of the alkali treated fibres with PLA could be responsible for the increased IFSS for ATPLA system compared to UFPLA system. Long and short fibre reinforced PLA composites were also produced with various processing conditions using compression moulding. A 32 wt% alkali treated long fibre PLA composite produced by film stacking with a TS of 83 MPa, YM of 11 GPa, flexural strength of 143 MPa, flexural modulus of 6.5 GPa, IE of 9 kJ/m2, and KIc of 3 MPa.m1/2 was found to be the best. This could be due to the better bonding of the alkali treated fibres with PLA. The mechanical properties of this composite have been found to be the best compared to the available literature. Hygrothermal and accelerated ageing of 32 wt% untreated and alkali treated long fibre/PLA composites ATPLA composites were more resistant than UFPLA composites towards hygrothermal and accelerated ageing environments as revealed from diffusion coefficients and tensile, flexural, impact, KIc, SEM, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), WAXRD, and FTIR results. Increased potential hydrogen bond formation and mechanical interlocking of the alkali treated fibres with PLA could be responsible for the increased resistance of the ATPLA composites. Based on the present study, it can be said that the performance of natural fibre composites largely depend on fibre properties (e.g. length and orientation), matrix properties (e.g. cure kinetics and crystallinity), fibre treatment and processing methods, and composite processing methods.

A study was conducted to evaluate the properties and processes influencing the rate and magnitude of volume decrease and strength gain for oil sand fine tailings resulting from a change in bitumen extraction process (caustic versus non-caustic) and the effect of adding a coagulant to caustic fine tailings. Laboratory flume deposition tests were carried out with the objective to hydraulically deposit oil sand tailings and compare the effects of extraction processes on the nature of beach deposits in terms of geometry, particle size distribution, and density. A good correlation exists between flume deposition tests results using oil sand tailings and the various other tailings materials. These comparisons show the reliability and effectiveness of flume deposition tests in terms of establishing general relationships and can serve as a guide to predict beach slopes. Fine tailings were collected from the various flume tests and a comprehensive description of physical and chemical characteristics of the different fine tailings was carried out. The characteristics of the fine tailings is presented in terms of index properties, mineralogy, specific surface area, water chemistry, liquid limits, particle size distribution and structure. The influence of these fundamental properties on the compressibility, hydraulic conductivity and shear strength properties of the fine tailings was assessed. Fourteen two meter and one meter high standpipe tests were instrumented to monitor the rate and magnitude of self-weight consolidation of the different fine tailings materials. Consolidation tests using slurry consolidometers were carried out to determine consolidation properties, namely compressibility and hydraulic conductivity, as well as the effect of adding a coagulant (calcium sulphate [CaSO4]) to caustic fine tailings. The thixotropic strength of the fine tailings was examined by measuring shear strength over time using a vane shear apparatus. A difference in water chemistry during bitumen extraction was concluded to be the cause of substantial differences in particle size distributions and degree of dispersion of the comparable caustic and non-caustic fine tailings. The degree of dispersion was consistent with predictions for dispersed clays established by the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) values for these materials. The biggest advantage of non-caustic fine tailings and treating caustic fine tailings with coagulant is an increased initial settlement rate and slightly increased hydraulic conductivity at higher void ratios. Thereafter, compressibility and hydraulic conductivity are governed by effective stress. The chemical characteristics of fine tailings (water chemistry, degree of dispersion) do not have a significant impact on their compressibility behaviour and have only a small influence at high void ratio (low effective stress). Fine tailings from a caustic based extraction process had relatively higher shear strengths than comparable non-caustic fine tailings at equivalent void ratios. However, shear strength differences were small and the overall impact on consolidation behaviour, which also depends on compressibility and hydraulic conductivity, is not expected to be significant.

Η παρούσα διατριβή ανήκει στο γενικότερο θεματικό πεδίο της σεισμικής αποτίμησης, σχεδιασμού ή ανασχεδιασμού κατασκευών οπλισμένου σκυροδέματος με βάση τις μετακινήσεις. Οι σύγχρονες μέθοδοι αυτού του τύπου, στηρίζονται σε έλεγχο και σύγκριση της σεισμικής απαίτησης με την ικανότητα των μελών της κατασκευής σε όρους μετακινήσεων παρά σε όρους δυνάμεων. Δημιουργείται επομένως η ανάγκη για απλό και αξιόπιστο υπολογισμό της συμπεριφοράς μελών οπλισμένου σκυροδέματος σε κάμψη και διάτμηση, σε όρους μετακινήσεων. Το αντικείμενο της παρούσης διατριβής είναι η ανάπτυξη προσομοιωμάτων για τον υπολογισμό των βασικών χαρακτηριστικών της συμπεριφοράς καμπτόμενων μελών οπλισμένου σκυροδέματος και συγκεκριμένα: της ροπής διαρροής, της παραμόρφωσης στη διαρροή, της ενεργού δυσκαμψίας, της παραμόρφωσης στην αστοχία, της διατμητικής αντοχής σε ανακυκλιζόμενη φόρτιση, της αντοχής μελών με χαμηλό λόγο διάτμησης και της συμπεριφοράς υπό διαξονική καταπόνηση. Εξετάζονται μέλη διαφόρων τύπων και διαφορετικής διατομής, μέλη με ενίσχυση μανδύα οπλισμένου σκυροδέματος ή μανδύα σύνθετων υλικών, καθώς επίσης και μέλη με μάτιση του διαμήκους οπλισμού στην περιοχή πλαστικής άρθρωσης. Για την ανάπτυξη των προσομοιωμάτων, καθώς και για τον έλεγχο άλλων παλαιότερων, αναπτύχθηκε και αξιοποιήθηκε βάση πειραματικών δεδομένων μελών οπλισμένου σκυροδέματος με περισσότερα από 2800 πειράματα από τη διεθνή βιβλιογραφία. Για τον υπολογισμό της ροπής και της καμπυλότητας στη διαρροή, αναπτύσσονται απλές σχέσεις υπολογισμού, βασιζόμενες σε ανάλυση σε επίπεδο διατομής και καθορίζονται τα κατάλληλα κριτήρια διαρροής. Αναπτύσσονται ακολούθως σχέσεις υπολογισμού της παραμόρφωσης στη διαρροή, και συγκεκριμένα της γωνίας στροφής χορδής του μέλους στη διαρροή, θy, ως άθροισμα τριών όρων: καμπτικής παραμόρφωσης, διατμητικής παραμόρφωσης και παραμόρφωσης λόγω ολίσθησης των ράβδων διαμήκους οπλισμού από την περιοχή αγκύρωσης. Προτείνονται δε δύο εναλλακτικοί τρόποι υπολογισμού της ενεργού δυσκαμψίας, ένας θεωρητικός και ένας καθαρά εμπειρικός. Στη συνέχεια εξετάζεται η παραμόρφωση στην αστοχία και προτείνονται δύο εναλλακτικοί μέθοδοι υπολογισμού της γωνίας στροφής χορδής στην αστοχία, θu. Η 1η βασίζεται στον υπολογισμό της καμπυλότητας στην αστοχία, φu, με εφαρμογή του κατάλληλου προσομοιώματος περίσφιγξης του σκυροδέματος, και στην εφαρμογή της φu σε μήκος πλαστικής άρθρωσης ίσο με Lpl, ενώ η 2η σε καθαρά εμπειρικές εξισώσεις. Εξετάζεται ακολούθως η διατμητική αντοχή σε ανακυκλιζόμενη φόρτιση και προτείνονται προσομοιώματα για αστοχία σε διαγώνιο εφελκυσμό ή αστοχία σε λοξή θλίψη, μετά την καμπτική διαρροή. Στη συνέχεια εξετάζεται η συμπεριφορά μελών οπλισμένου σκυροδέματος υπό διαξονική καταπόνηση. Εξετάζονται επίσης μέλη με χαμηλό λόγο διάτμησης και προτείνονται νέα αντιπροσωπευτικότερα κριτήρια για τον χαρακτηρισμό ενός μέλους ως “κοντό μέλος”, καθώς και νέα μεθοδολογία υπολογισμού της αντοχής των μελών αυτών, με κατάλληλο συνδυασμό του προσομοιώματος των Shohara and Kato, 1981 και των Φαρδής και συνεργάτες 1998. Ακολούθως εξετάζονται μέλη ενισχυμένα με μανδύα σύνθετων υλικών και προτείνονται προσομοιώματα υπολογισμού της γωνίας στροφής χορδής στη διαρροή και την καμπτική αστοχία, καθώς και προσομοίωμα υπολογισμού της διατμητικής αντοχής. Στη συνέχεια εξετάζεται η συμπεριφορά μελών με μάτιση του διαμήκους οπλισμού στην περιοχή πλαστικής άρθρωσης, καθώς και η εφαρμογή μανδύα σύνθετων υλικών για την ενίσχυση της περιοχής αυτής. Τέλος εξετάζεται η συμπεριφορά στη διαρροή και στην αστοχία, μελών ενισχυμένων με μανδύα οπλισμένου σκυροδέματος. Η ανάπτυξη όλων των προτεινόμενων προσομοιωμάτων της διατριβής βασίζεται στην καλύτερη δυνατή συμφωνία με τα πειραματικά αποτελέσματα της βάσης δεδομένων, χωρίς όμως να θυσιάζεται η απλότητα και η ευχρηστία αυτών. / The present Thesis belongs in the general field of seismic assessment, design and redesign of concrete structures with displacement based procedures. Modern methods of this kind are based in controlling and comparing seismic demand with structural elements capacity in terms of displacements rather than forces. This leads in the need of estimating reinforced concrete elements performance under bending and shear, in terms of displacements. The object of the Thesis is development of models for calculating the basic performance characteristics of reinforced concrete elements under bending, in particular: yield moment, deformation at yielding, effective stiffness, deformation at ultimate, shear strength under cyclic loading, maximum strength of members with low shear ratio and behavior under biaxial loading. Members with various types of section and various characteristics are included, as also members retrofitted with FRP jacket or concrete jacket and members with lap-splice of longitudinal reinforcement in plastic hinge region. In order to develop new models and check older ones, a database of more than 2800 experiments from international literature on reinforced concrete elements was created and used here. Simple equations and procedures are suggested for calculating yield moment and corresponding curvature, based on section analysis, by specifying the appropriate yield criteria. Equations for calculating deformation at yielding, in particular chord rotation at yielding, θy as the sum of deformations due to bending, due to shear and due to slippage of longitudinal reinforcement from anchorage zone, are also developed. Calculation of effective stiffness is based on two alternative models, one theoretical and one purely empirical. Deformation at ultimate is then examined where two methods for calculating chord rotation at ultimate are suggested. 1st one is based on ultimate curvature, φu, where an appropriate concrete confinement model is used, and plastic hinge length Lpl, while 2nd one is based on purely empirical equations. Shear strength under cyclic loading is also examined and new models for calculating shear strength for shear tension and shear compression failure after flexural yield are developed. Behavior of reinforced concrete elements under biaxial loading is then examined. Elements with low shear ratio are also covered and new, more representative, criteria to characterize an element as a “short element” are suggested. A procedure based on an appropriate combination of Shohara and Kato 1981 model and Fardis et al. 1998 model is then suggested for calculating maximum strength of such “short elements”. Retrofitted members with FRP jacket are then examined and models for chord rotation at yielding and ultimate, as well as for shear strength are suggested. Behavior of members with lap-splice of longitudinal reinforcement inside plastic hinge region is then examined, including also retrofitting of this region with FRP jacket. Performance at yielding and ultimate of retrofitted members with concrete jacket is also examined. Development of all the suggested models of the Thesis is based on best fit with experimental results of the database, without sacrificing simplicity and applicability of the models.

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This diploma thesis focuses on the implementation of waterproofing of underground constructions using an LLDPE membrane hinged on anchors. In the future, this method will replace the commonly used waterproofing system in Scandinavia with extruded polyethylene foam. This method of tunnel construction and waterproofing is compared with the NRTM method, often used in Central Europe. The thesis describes the installation of a waterproofing system, especially materials, accessories, welding devices and auxiliary installation equipment. The main focus of the thesis is to verify the reliability of the individual types of welds and to assess the waterproofing system in terms of implementation and environmental demands.

L’utilisation de composites à matrice thermodurcissable et fibres continues est en constante progression dans le secteur aéronautique, ferroviaire, et automobile. Afin d’améliorer les composites obtenus, notamment leur résistance à l’impact et leur conductivité électrique, des nanocharges organiques ou inorganiques peuvent être ajoutées. Les nanotubes de carbone (CNT) font partie des candidats les plus prometteurs pour le renforcement de composites à multi-échelle. Cependant, il s’avère difficile de contrôler la dispersion, la répartition et l’orientation des CNT, après les avoir mélangés aux prépolymères. Une nouvelle stratégie d’insertion des CNT dans un composite consiste à combiner des fibres de CNT avec des fibres de carbone. L’orientation et l’organisation structurelle des CNT au sein de la fibre permettent d’obtenir d’excellentes propriétés mécaniques et électriques. Dans notre étude, les propriétés de fibres contenant exclusivement des CNT, obtenues par direct spinning, ont été comparées à celles de fibres de carbone (non-ensimées, ensimées, et CNT en surface). Différentes interfaces entre les fibres de CNT, fibres de carbone et deux types de matrices époxy (de TG très différentes) ont été générées et testées par des essais de fragmentation de fibre dans la matrice. La contrainte de cisaillement interfaciale fibre/matrice a été évaluée afin de déterminer l’influence des diverses fibres et ensimages sur les performances mécaniques de composites à matrice organique et à fibres continues. En outre, la nature de l’adhésion et la qualité de l’interphase entre la matrice et la fibre ont été caractérisées par plusieurs techniques d’analyses et d’observations à multi-échelles. / Nowadays, polymer-matrix composites reinforced with carbon fibers are increasingly used in the whole transport sector (aerospace, automotive and railway industries). However, the obtained parts still suffer from low impact resistance and low damage tolerance. To improve these properties, the matrix precursors have to be combined with organic or inorganic compounds to lead to multi-phased matrices. Among them, carbon nanotubes (CNT) are especially promising for targeting multi-scale reinforcement. Since high quality of the parts are required, continuous-fibers-reinforced composites can be produced by resin transfer molding (RTM) which also offers a reduced cost if compared with high temperature- and high pressure-based processes. However, RTM requires a very low viscosity of the polymer precursors and CNT-filled precursors are far too viscous to be injected on dry performs. In addition, this strategy does not allow for a control of the CNT location and orientation in the final part. In this study, innovative ways have been developed to insert CNT in the preform with local positioning and defined orientation. Deliveries of CNT in the matrix, from a neat carbon multi-nanotubes fiber produced by direct spinning, or from a CNT grown on carbon fiber were investigated in two types of epoxy matrices (with very different TG). Different polymer matrix/fiber interfaces have been generated using neat carbon multi-nanotubes fiber, CNT grown on carbon fiber and conventional carbon fiber, with or without sizing. A fine mechanical characterization of various fibers and particularly the measurement of single fiber interfacial properties have been performed in order to determine mechanical performance of continuous fiber reinforced composites. In addition, the nature of adhesion and quality of matrix/fiber interface have been fully evaluated by different multi-scale analyses and suitable microstructural observations.