Thèse numérisée par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal.

Conditionner les produits alimentaires, pharmaceutiques et cosmétiques pour les conserver et les transporter a toujours été une nécessité pour des hommes à la fois consommateurs et commerçants. Cette étude, qui relève à la fois de l’histoire et de l’archéologie, souligne le rôle majeur joué par le verre, en Provence, au XVIIIe et au XIXe siècle, comme mode de conditionnement des marchandises de qualité. Depuis l’Antiquité jusqu’à nos jours, les produits de luxe, vins fins, huiles surfines et parfums sont protégés et mis en valeur par leur emballage en verre. Il est le matériau idéal car il possède toutes les qualités physiques et chimiques pour devenir fonctionnel et esthétique. Lorsque la Provence se lance, dans les premières décennies du XVIIIe siècle, à la conquête marchande des espaces maritimes, elle bénéficie d’une économie fondée sur la transformation d’agro-alimentaire local ou importé. L’industrie des emballages prend alors un essor considérable en Provence en lien avec cette économie. Les contenants en verre vont ainsi s’exporter à travers le monde, par bateau, grâce à l’action conjuguée de facteurs favorables : le rayonnement international du port de Marseille ainsi que les progrès techniques liés à l’adoption d’une nouvelle source d’énergie, le charbon. Influencée par l’exemple des autres régions, françaises et européennes, la verrerie provençale connaît une métamorphose notable qui conduit à l’abandon progressif des ateliers forestiers au profit d’une implantation portuaire. Sources écrites et iconographiques constituent une grande part de notre documentation complétée par les sources archéologiques. Elles sont liées principalement à la découverte et à l'étude récente d'épaves ainsi qu'à l'inventaire d'un mobilier diversifié, issu des collections publiques et privées. / Packaging food products, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics to store them and transport them has always been a necessity for humans, both as consumers and merchants. This study, which deals with both history and archeology, highlights the major role played by glass, in Provence, in the 18th and 19th centuries, as a packaging quality method. Since Antiquity, and until the present day, luxury products, fine wines, delicate olive oils, and perfumes have been protected and emphasized through their glass packaging. It is the ideal material because it has all of the necessary physical and chemical properties to become functional and aesthetic. When Provence set out, in the early decades of the 18th century, in merchant conquest of the seas, it had an economy based on the transformation of local or imported agricultural goods. The manufacture of packaging then saw a considerable rise in Provence tied to this economy. Glass containers were then exported throughout the world, by sea, thanks to the combined action of favorable factures: the international reputation of the port of Marseille as well as the technical progress tied to the adoption of a new energy source : coal extraction. Influenced by the example of other regions, both French and European, Provencal glassworks underwent a notable metamorphosis which led to the gradual abandonment of forest glasshouse for port locations. Written and iconographic sources constitute a large part of our documentation supplemented by field sources. These are mainly tied to the discovery and recent study of shipwrecks as well as the survey of a diversified archeological inventory, derived from public and private collections.

Dans le cadre de cette thèse en archéologie grecque, j’ai entrepris de travailler sur l’organisation du commerce maritime grec en Méditerranée orientale et en mer Noire aux Vème et IVème s. av. J.-C., et principalement sur la nature et l'intensité des échanges qui s'opéraient dans cette partie de la Méditerranée à l'époque. Pour mener à bien mon travail, j'ai constitué un nouveau catalogue des épaves grecques que j'ai ensuite confronté aux sources textuelles, épigraphiques, et archéologiques existantes. L'étude attentive des cargaisons des bateaux à laquelle je me livre participe à une meilleure compréhension des acteurs commerciaux de l'époque, des réseaux d'échanges et surtout du véritable rôle joué par Athènes. / In this present thesis concerning Greek Archaeology, I undertook to work on the organization of Greek maritime commerce in Eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea during the 5th and 4th century BC. I worked mostly on the trade's nature and intensity occurring in this part of the Mediteranean in this time. In order to carry out my work properly, I established a new catalog of greek shipwrecks, that I then confront with textual, epigraphic and archaeological sources. The careful study of the ship's cargo takes part in a better understanding of the commercial actors, trading network and above all of the importance of Athens at this time.

In this thesis human skeletal remains believed to be the victims of the Batavia Mutiny of 1629 were subjected to DNA analysis. So far the remains of 10 individuals (of which 9 were available for this study) have been exhumed from Beacon Island, in the Houtman’s Abrolhos, off the coast of Western Australia. The remains are now stored in the Western Australia Maritime Museum (WAMM) in Fremantle. In this research an attempt is made to type ancient DNA (aDNA) from the remains of the Batavia Mutiny, which are almost 400 years old. Previous anthropological studies have been performed on these remains in order to assign sex, age and stature. The aim of the present project is to study the familial relationships of the remains and to determine their sex based on molecular genetic analysis. In order to protect the invaluable museum specimens and minimise the risk of contamination from exogenous contemporary DNA, a tooth sample from each available individual (designated A15507, A16316, A15831, M3901, SK5, SK6, SK7, SK8 and SK9) was subjected to DNA extraction. Comparison and optimisation of DNA extraction methods from more recent teeth samples was performed in order to determine the most suitable method for the DNA extraction of the ancient teeth samples. Three types of genetic markers were analysed in an attempt to study the familial relationships and determine the sex of each individual. Multiplex primers (Hummel, 2003) which simultaneously amplify the HV1 and HV2 regions of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) were used in this research to analyse familial relationships. These primers were selected because of their ability to amplify small fragments (131bp, 168bp and 217bp) of DNA template, which suit the nature of aDNA samples. Primers published by Sullivan et al.(1993), which amplify a 106bp region on chromosome X and 112bp on chromosome Y of the amelogenin gene, were used to determine sex. In addition, short tandem repeat (STR) marker were also analysed to determine familial and sex using the AmpFlSTR®Profiler PlusTMPCR kit from Applied Biosystems. The PCR conditions of all primers were optimised before usage on the Batavia remains. As aDNA analysis is prone to contamination, stringent precautions were undertaken throughout this research. Despite this, contamination is suspected in some of the mtDNA sequences obtained (particularly from SK5, SK7, A15507 and A15831), which most probably came from the positive control used in the optimisation analysis. For these samples the sequences for the HV2 region were poor and polymorphisms relative to a reference were similar to each other and to the positive control profile. However, some conclusions have been made on other individuals (SK8, SK9, M3901, A16316) based on the HV1 and HV2 sequences obtained. Based on two or more different polymorphisms observed in the individuals it was concluded that it is likely there is no maternal relationship between individuals A16316 and SK8, SK9 and M3901 and between individuals SK8, M3901 and SK9. However these results require repetition for confirmation. The attempt to type the amelogenin gene on chromosomes X and Y was unsuccessful most likely due to the poor preservation of the remains. It is apparent from this research that although it was possible to extract aDNA (especially multicopy mtDNA) from teeth material that were almost 400 years old, the main hurdle in this aDNA analysis was contamination and DNA degradation.

Thèse numérisée par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal

International trade in large amounts of commodities resulted in the recent growth of the shipping industry. With larger ships being constructed to meet land based demands for various types of commodities combined with the unpredictable and often perilous conditions at sea, the risk of a shipwreck arising becomes more likely. Not only do these wrecks pose a danger to the environment and to navigation but also, in the event of the shipowner escaping liability by abandoning the wreck for instance, the state affected by the wreck finds itself financially burdened by the costs involved in having the wreck removed. Moreover, an affected state cannot intervene and impose conditions to the shipowner to have a wreck removed if it occurred in its exclusive economic zone because the state’s jurisdiction is limited to preserving natural resources. Thus, despite drifting cargo and the ship itself posing a hazard to coastal states, they had no authority to intervene and issue a wreck removal notice. Recognising these safety concerns and lacunae in international law, the International Maritime Organisation formulated the Nairobi International Convention on the Removal of Wrecks, 2007, (“Nairobi Convention”) which was aimed at governing the regulation of removing wrecks whilst imposing strict liability on the shipowner, subject to the other liability Conventions and limitation of liability. However, after a survey was conducted by the Comitè Maritime International it was also established that national laws of many states such as the United Kingdom (“UK”) and South Africa were inadequate to enforce liability claims for costs incurred in removing a wreck. As a result, the Convention allows contracting states to apply the provisions of the Convention to their territorial sea. This dissertation will discuss relevant provisions of the Nairobi Convention and illustrate how it has been implemented and consequently reformed the law of the United Kingdom. The dissertation will then analyse the implementation strategy which enforces the Convention in the UK, with the aim of providing a suggestion of how South Africa should enforce the Convention into its national laws. This will lead to an assessment of the current legislative framework governing wreck removal in South Africa with the aim of establishing whether the law is need of reform and how this should be facilitated. / Thesis (LL.M.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.

The Western Australian Museum houses a large collection of artefacts from late nineteenth century iron sailing vessels, wrecked en route from Britain. The bulk of this collection comprises cargo objects, destined for sale in the Swan River colony. The protection afforded artefacts, due to the integrity of these shipwrecks, presents new research opportunites for identifying particular classes of commodities which were considered either necessary or desirable for colonial consumers. This thesis examines the notion of material consumption as reflected in shipwreck assemblages in Western Australia for the later nineteenth century, prior to Federation. The research is concerned with the notion of cultural continuity from Britain through specific product selection, as demonstrated by the archaeological assemblages of iron barques importing general merchandise into the colony. Focusing on the Sepia (1898), the objectives include an appraisal of shipwreck cargo artefacts and their applicability to questions relating to consumer behaviour. While the primary objective of this study is on the identification of cargo assemblages, it presents an opportunity to study taphonomic processes and provide a method of relating the vessel to its cargo contents in order to answer broader questions about shipping practices, with a particular focus on stowage. This research also critiques shipwreck collections comprised of selectively recovered, unprovenanced artefacts and suggests appropriate methods for using such material.

Au début des temps modernes (16ème - 18ème siècles), la construction de grands navires était primordiale pour le développement des rencontres culturelles dans ce qui est devenu l'âge de la découverte et de l'expansion européenne. L’Espagne était une des grandes puissances de l’époque. Le projet européen « ForSEAdiscovery » cherche dans ce contexte à répondre aux questions clés suivantes : les ressources forestières ibériques de l’époque soutenaient-elles la demande croissante de bois, ou bien ce bois était-il importé d’autres pays ? Si ces bois ne provenaient pas de l’Espagne, comment les réseaux de commerce étaient-ils organisés ? Ce projet aborde ces questions à travers un programme de recherche multidisciplinaire et innovant pour améliorer la compréhension de notre passé historique et de notre patrimoine culturel, et développer notre connaissance sur l'utilisation passée des ressources en bois pour la construction navale. L'objectif de cette thèse, qui s’insère dans ce projet, est d’identifier la provenance des bois utilisés dans la construction navale ibérique en utilisant des traceurs géochimiques. L’hypothèse est que les arbres se développant sur des roches et des sols contrastés possèdent des signatures géochimiques spécifiques héritées des roches. Les signatures isotopiques en strontium (87Sr/86Sr) peuvent notamment être des indicateurs de provenance géographique. Dans ce contexte, la démarche suivie dans la thèse a consisté à caractériser la signature isotopique en Sr dans des bois d'épaves de bateaux et dans les bois d’arbres actuels, les sols et roches prélevés dans les principaux peuplements forestiers espagnols pointés comme lieux de production des bois entre le 16ème - 18ème siècles. Les signatures en δ88/86Sr, traceur peu connu encore, ont également été caractérisées dans les échantillons. Les types et les âges des roches ont été caractérisés et les liens entre les rapports isotopiques 87Sr/86Sr et δ88/86Sr dans les roches, sols et arbres ont été étudiés sur les sites espagnols échantillonnés. La signature locale des sites espagnols potentiels de provenance de bois a été déterminée. Nos résultats mettent en évidence que le rapport isotopique 87Sr/86Sr dans les arbres reflète la signature de la fraction échangeable des sols sur lesquels ils croissent alors que le δ88/86Sr est affecté par le fractionnement, les isotopes légers (86Sr) étant préférentiellement incorporés dans les arbres laissant la fraction échangeable du sol enrichie avec les isotopes lourds (88Sr). Ce fractionnement observé pour les chênes, n’est pas marqué dans le bois des pins suggérant que le fractionnement isotopique durant le transfert du Sr entre le sol et l’arbre est dépendant de l’espèce. La contamination des bois d’épaves par les éléments marins a été identifiée. Le Sr marin se retrouve notamment sous forme adsorbée ou dans la structure des minéraux précipités dans les bois immergés. Différentes expériences d’extractions ont été testées et un protocole adapté a été développé pour extraire les éléments marins et retrouver la signature originelle du bois archéologique. Nous avons réussi à valider un protocole d’extraction et retrouver la signature originelle d’un échantillon de bois d’épave. Ce résultat souligne le potentiel et l’importance d’une nouvelle méthode combinant 87Sr/86Sr et δ88/86Sr pour des futures études de provenance de bois ou autres matériaux. Cependant, nos résultats indiquent également que beaucoup de nos échantillons de bois archéologiques n’ont pas conservé leur Sr originel. Partant de ce constat, des préconisations sont proposées pour améliorer la possibilité d’utilisation de ce traceur dans les études futures de provenance de bois archéologiques sous-marins / In the Early Modern Age (16th - 18th centuries), the construction of ocean-going ships was paramount to the development of cultural encounters in what became the Age of Discovery and European expansion. Spain was one of the biggest forces of that time. The European project “ForSEAdiscovery” seeks answers in this context to the following key questions: Could Spanish forest resources sustain the increasing demand of timber, or were the wood imported from elsewhere? If Spanish forests were not the only wood supplier, how were the trade networks organized? This project will address these questions through a multidisciplinary and innovative training research program to improve the understanding of our historical past, our cultural heritage, and our knowledge of the use of resources for shipbuilding. The objective of this PhD thesis, taking part of this project, is to identify the provenance of the Iberian shipbuilding wood using geochemical tracers. The hypothesis is that trees growing on contrasted rocks and soils have specific geochemical signatures, which can be an indicator of geographic provenance. In this context, the Sr isotopic signature (87Sr/86Sr) was characterized in shipwreck wood samples and wood from living trees, soils and rocks collected from the Spanish forest stands indicated as potential source of wood between the 16th - 18th centuries. The δ88/86Sr signatures were also characterized in the samples. The rock types and ages were characterized at the selected sites and the link between the 87Sr/86Sr and δ88/86Sr in rocks, soils and trees was studied on the sampled Spanish sites. The local signature of Spanish potential sites was determined for provenance of wood. Our results indicate that 87Sr/86Sr isotope ratios in trees reflect the signature of the corresponding soil exchangeable pool while δ88/86Sr was shown to be affected by mass-dependent fractionation with trees taking up lighter (86Sr) isotopes, leaving the soil exchangeable pool enriched with the heavier isotopes (88Sr). This fractionation observed for oak trees, was not found in pines suggesting that the isotopic fractionation during tree uptake is species dependent. The contamination of wood from shipwrecks by seawater elements was identified. Marine Sr was found to be adsorbed on the wood or included in the precipitated minerals in the waterlogged wood. Several extraction experiments were tested and an adapted protocol was developed to extract the seawater elements and retrieve the original signature of the archaeological wood. We succeeded to validate an extraction protocol and retrieve the original signature of one wood sample. This result underline the potential and importance of a new method combining 87Sr/86Sr and δ88/86Sr values for future provenance studies on wood or other materials. However, our results also indicated that most of our shipwreck wood samples did not conserve their original Sr. Therefore, preconizations were suggested in order to extend the use of this tracer in future provenance studies on archaeological wood from shipwrecks

Au XVIème siècle, la construction navale méditerranéenne - en particulier italienne - est réputée pour sa qualité. Cette culture technique est héritée d’une tradition séculaire transmise oralement de génération en génération. Mais elle est aujourd’hui en grande partie méconnue car, à la rareté de la documentation écrite s’ajoute la pauvreté de la documentation archéologique. La découverte des épaves de la Mortella (Saint-Florent, Hte-Corse) en 2005 et 2006, et l’entreprise d’un programme de fouille sur l’une d’entre elles - la Mortella III - en 2010 mettant en évidence une architecture du XVIème siècle de tradition méditerranéenne, offre la perspective de contribuer à combler ces lacunes. En étudiant les données archéologiques issues des cinq campagnes de fouilles réalisées sur cette épave, notre travail de recherche se fixe comme objectif essentiel la mise en évidence de « marqueurs » qualifiés d’ « empreintes techniques » et « architecturales » susceptibles de contribuer à la définition d’un modèle de construction navale au XVIème siècle en Méditerranée, tel que la recherche archéologique a commencé à en esquisser les traits à partir des années 80. Dans cette perspective, l’analyse se base sur des comparaisons avec les données archéologiques d’autres épaves de la période. Elle s’appuie par ailleurs sur les références apportées par les sources écrites ainsi que l’iconographie. Enfin, les recherches documentaires qui ont été menées en marge du travail d’archéologie ont permis de rattacher les épaves de la Mortella à leur histoire, en l’occurrence aux guerres d’Italie de l’année 1527. Dans ce sens, l’étude archéologique - qui demeure l’épicentre de cette thèse - est utilement complétée par la recherche historique. / During the 16th century, the Mediterranean shipbuilding –especially in Italy– was renowned for its quality. It held a technical culture inherited by an ancient tradition that had passed down orally from one generation to the next. But today it is largely unknown, since, to the scarcity of documentation in writing, is added a poor archaeological documentation. The discovery of the Mortella shipwrecks (Saint-Florent, Upper Corsica, France) in 2005 and 2006, and the programme of archaeological excavations of one of them –the Mortella III– undertaken in 2010, highlight an architecture from the 16th century that belongs to the Mediterranean tradition and offer the prospect of contributing to fill the existing gaps. After studying the archaeological data from the five excavation campaigns done on this wreck, our research sets as key goal identifying ‘indicators’ such as ‘technical and architectural traits’ which can contribute to the definition of a model of shipbuilding from the 16th century in the Mediterranean, initiated by previous archaeological research started in the eighties. In this perspective, the analysis is based on comparisons with archaeological data from other wrecks of that period. Moreover, it also relies on the references provided by the written sources, as well as the iconography. Finally, the archival researches undertaken in the margins of the archaeological work have allowed to link the wrecks of the Mortella to their history, in this case to the Italian wars of 1527. In this regard, the archaeological study –which remains the epicenter of this thesis– is usefully supplemented by the historical research.

This study endeavours to elucidate the journal of Captain Hermanus Hofmeijer of the Dutch man 0' war, Amsterdam, which has been transcribed from the original script, translated from Dutch into English and interpreted from a contemporary viewpoint. It offers an opportunity to evaluate a unique primary historical document which records an important historical event. An attempt has been made to contextualise the incident in the light of the early history of the Dutch people. The contribution of the Dutch East India Company (VaC) to the trade and commerce of the Netherlands during the 17th and 18th centuries has been assessed together with the shipbuilding techniques that served to make the Dutch a major seafaring nation. The significance of Texel and Nieuwediep has been examined and the sea route and navigational instruments placed in perspective. The voyage has been analysed in some detail. The background of Captain Hermanus Hofmeijer has proved especially interesting. Although he pursued his career with the Dutch Navy, he was born and spent his early years in Cape Town, South Africa. The time spent by the Amsterdam in Batavia, Samaraog and Sourabaya gives an insight into the Dutch possessions overseas. The return voyage, storms and ultimate grounding are of special interest as Hofmeijer records the journey and events on a daily basis. The impact and significance of 217 extra people in the Eastern Cape area did not go unnoticed, and although the event was not well documented, an attempt at some contextualisation has been made. Finally a short overview of maritime archaeology in South Africa and its significance as a relatively new discipline has been included. The study of the material remains of the wreck of the Amsterdam has resulted in a new understanding of wooden ships built in the early 19th century.