Resilience, in an organizational sense meaning the ability to withstand crises and disturbances, has become a keyword during the last ten years. It is associated with established activities like risk and crisis management and business continuity planning or with strategic management, but it allows for new perspectives and insights into the conditions for doing business. Applied to the whole supply chain it also provides tools for managing and aligning the logistics flows in an appropriate way. But why is resilience essential for success or survival? In context to the Swedish textile and clothing (T&amp;C) industry, the average number of firms that went bankrupt during the recent crisis (2007-09) escalated twofold compared to the average over 2000-10 due to tremendous pressure on the Swedish credit system. The structural industrial statistics also plummeted in these crisis years aggravating other inherent or internal problems as a ’ripple effect’. The small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) were the most affected of all, facing major threats to their financial performance and ultimately to their survival, at times of economic crises. In such a context, study of organizational resilience (ORes), to survive and thrive becomes increasingly significant. To address this issue the thesis concentrates on understanding the resilience development process through crisis strategic planning in context to Swedish textile-related SMEs amidst economic crises. It investigates and answers how resilience development can be considered as a precursor for business success, how to develop and monitor resilience, and identifies its antecedents and key strategic initiatives and their differential degrees of influence. No prior studies describing organizational resilience and crisis strategic planning in an integrated processual approach using both short-term and long-term strategies through planning and adaptation were found in the literature. The thesis adopts a critical realist-grounded theory (CR-GT) approach along the metaphysical level as the structure for the resilience development process follows a causal relationship between the object (the organization), its structure (competences and strategies), the causal power (crisis strategic planning) for attaining an event/outcome (resilience) in a particular context (economic crisis). For addressing this issue of devising an outcome-based processual approach, a multivariate financial indicator called the Altman’s Z-score (used basically for calculating bankruptcy potential in firms) was used for quantifying resilience. For investigating the causal mechanism epistemological relativism along the grounded theory approach was chosen for theory generation. A mixed methodology was adopted based on quantitative statistical analyses, at first, followed by a detailed qualitative work based on surveys, interviews, case studies and secondary data for data triangulation. Analysis of data was conducted through certain thematic coding principles. A four-step hermeneutic spiral was followed by systematically combining the pre-understanding, empirics and extant literature to develop a theoretical framework through constant modification. Overall, the resilience development was highlighted along a processual framework adopted along the CR-GT view of causation. The findings are manifold. Firstly there is a need to develop economic resilience in SMEs to shift from just component-view to a more holistic systemic view of organizations, upheld by an integrated crisis strategic planning (CSP) approach, for facing dynamic environments. Secondly, the CSP process prescribed in the thesis is quite integrated and holistic, taking a view from all angles, viz. organizational structure (capabilities and strategies), processual approach etc. Such a resilience development process through CSP is based on a six-step process: (i) identification of environmental context, (ii) impact analysis, (iii) leadership analysis, (iv) capability analysis, (v) formulation/selection and implementation of strategies, and (vi) evaluation and review of strategic options, utilizing a suite of strategic tools and techniques and is particularly simple for application in an SME setting. Third, operationalization of such a causal mechanism based upon implementation of strategic tools is based upon using a multivariate financial indicator like Altman’s Z-score to outline the relation between ORes and business ‘health’, thus quantifying it. Finally, in order to develop a resilient organization it is important to engage and utilize effectively the key resources and assets (financial, material, social, networks) by developing dynamic capabilities (strategic and operational flexibilities, redundancy, robustness) and organizational learning (culture, employee wellbeing, attentive leadership and decision-making). These competences must be employed for the appropriate strategy development (selection, implementation, and evaluation) framed on both growth and continuity strategies, both planned and adaptive in nature. The research develops a holistic analytical framework of organizational structure for resilience development based on these two criteria. It also tests this framework for Swedish textile-related SMEs amidst economic crises. The findings in this contextual delimitation suggest that the resilient SMEs possess better financial resources, relational networks, operational &amp; strategic flexibilities. The economically resilient firms mostly showed planned resilience in economic crises based on long-term strategies through business continuity planning (BCP) and in terms of growth strategies through market penetration, diversification and transformational initiatives. These firms also showed better short-term crisis management (CM) through higher operational flexibility while the less resilient ones lacked in strategic readiness due to resource scarcity. This is beneficial for firms to understand the key areas in which to invest and develop a multistrategic CSP model, categorizing firms along different resilience types – planned or adaptive. / <p>Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Science in Technology to be presented with due</p><p>permission for public examination and criticism in Festia Building, Auditorium Pieni Sali 1, at Tampere University of Technology, on the 11th of October 2013, at 12 noon.</p>

The Swedish fashion industry is one of the fastest growing export industries and in recent years the Swedish fashion companies have been praised for their international expansion. For companies with niche products in smaller markets like Sweden internationalization is important but since the industry is constantly changing the internationalization process is quite challenging. Previous studies show that internationalization can be profitable for fashion companies but there is no unified view among researchers as to which way is the right way for the companies to internationalize. Most studies come to the general conclusion that companies seem to follow different paths. The purpose of this study is to contribute to the knowledge development of internationalization for small and medium-sized Swedish fashion companies based on established theories of internationalization. A qualitative study has been conducted based on a multiple case study design with 12 participating Swedish fashion companies. The study has a deductive approach since it has its starting point is from a well-established theoretical model: The Business Network Internationalization Process Model which has also worked as a foundation for the study’s analytical model. The analysis is however partly inductive since findings in the result have been fed back into a modified theoretical model, suitable and applicable for Swedish fashion companies’ internationalization processes. In conclusion the findings indicate that there are several important knowledge-bases for the fashion companies that motivate them to start an internationalization process, mainly their design-driven vision of becoming an international brand and the management’s risk-taking business mindset, founded in their entrepreneurial skills and previous knowledge. The result also shows that relationships with different industry actors are of high importance for the companies and in many cases the only way to internationalize. In addition the results show not only that the established theoretical model on internationalization is applicable to Swedish fashion companies but that there also are tendencies that show that the Swedish companies follow a more chronological path in their processes.

Training plays a key role in bridging employer skills needs and in raising the productivity of employees and individual firms. Many large organisations have long established in-house training programmes and the means for progressive personal development for employees. However, Smaller to Medium sized Enterprises (SMEs) have not mirrored the same. SMEs are less likely to provide off the job training to employees because of operational demands. There is a lack of structured approach to training within a SME. Despite the vast array of training programmes available to SMEs, very little has been done to tailor the training to the specific learning needs of SMEs. Web Based Training Environment (WeBTiE) is a tailored online training solution specific to a SMEs’ training needs. The portal within which online training is provided is the collaborative efforts of the Employer, Employee and Training Vendor. The portal encapsulates not only the learning content, but provides the learning support necessary to guide employees through the training and reinforce work-based practises with the use of a Community of Practice. Unlike many other training models the originality of this model is that it combines Pedagogy principles in the development of the training programme, along with e-learning model, Etivities for Structured On The Job Training. The generic nature of this model allows it to be adaptable for SMEs in a variety of industries and the tailoristic feature provides the flexibility necessary to permit the adaptability. This thesis focuses on the barriers SMEs face when attempting to train employees. By determining employee learning and training needs and establishing a ‘Learning Foundation’, can we move forward with the development of a training programme commissioned for SMEs. The work in this research is underpinned by learning theories and online learning and the application of these (adapted if necessary) in the context of the day-to-day constraints typical of SMEs.

The main objectives of this thesis are to examine and estimate the determinants of domestic investment (public and private) in the Libyan manufacturing sector, and to investigate the impact of domestic investment on the Libyan economy. It adds to the growing literature on the issue of economic growth and econometrics by drawing attention to several issues hitherto little considered in the existing literature. In particular, the thesis blends various aspects of economic growth with models of investment to explain and define the main factors which affect domestic investment, and how domestic investment drives economic growth in the Libyan economy. It is important to recognise that economic growth has become an important aim for all countries in the world; especially less developed countries, which require greater economic efforts to be able to deal with the current international economic climate and the challenges of globalisation: domestic investment is an exemplary element to stimulate economic growth to achieve this target. The main objective of the Libyan government has been the industrialization of Libya, principally through import substitution. Various import restrictions in the form of licensing, quotas and tariffs have provided several sub-sectors of manufacturing with a high level of protection from foreign competition. The government benefits from high levels of financial return in terms of oil revenues, and the consequent easy availability of imported raw materials and capital goods. Despite government support for investment designed to encourage import substitution and export-oriented production, Libya has continued to experience low levels of investment in the domestic manufacturing sector. The stimulus to undertake this study was a desire to explore the most important determinants of fixed investment in Libya's manufacturing sector. This study aims to identify determinants of domestic investment in both the public and private manufacturing sectors in the Libyan economy during the period 1962-2008. Furthermore, this study aimed to identify the impact of domestic investment as a determinant of growth in the Libyan economy during the period 1962-2008. Cobb- Douglas Function was used to analyze the relationship between real per-capita GDP and its most important determinants. Properties of time series of the model variables have been analyzed by using several tests for determining the integration level of each time series separately. By using the Johansen-Juselius cointegration method, the results showed that private investment is strongly and adversely affected in the longer term by changes that take place in domestic public investment in the manufacturing sector, which shows the competition factor between the private and public sectors. The results of these tests revealed an equilibrium relationship between domestic investment in the private manufacturing sector and its determinants in the long and short-run. Also, the results showed the significance of the impact of annual appropriations for the manufacturing sector and imports of machinery & capital goods on domestic investment in the public manufacturing sector, the results of these tests revealed an equilibrium relationship between domestic investment in the public manufacturing sector and its determinants in the long and short-run. Moreover, the results showed the significance of the impact of investment on per-capita GDP; the results of tests revealed an equilibrium relationship between per-capita GDP and its determinants in the long and short-run. The study concludes that the elasticity of per capita GDP to changes in domestic investment is greater than the elasticity of the labour force, which appeared inelastic in the short and long-term. According to the information available, the study and approach adopted have never been undertaken before for Libya, and therefore might contribute toward advancing knowledge and enhancing investment policy, and its implementation by government and private manufacturing enterprises in Libya and other developing countries.

This qualitative study aims to contribute to the research field on corporate sustainability (CS) in small and medium-sized enterprise (SMEs), in hopes of helping policymakers better understand the circumstances for Swedish SMEs and how they work with CS. Empirical data about motivations behind working with CS, implementation of CS activities, and effects of CS work were collected through in-depth interviews with 18 company representatives. The major reason for motivation was found to be personal interest and commitment to these kind of practices, followed by strengthening the competitiveness, marketing, initiative from management and board, and profitability aspects. The implementation process is often informal in nature with concrete measures and activities rather than formal policies and strategies, although a few of the companies make use of tools such as environmental management systems. How the companies communicate their CS work differs and the response from stakeholders varies too. Lastly, profitability was found to be an important effect for some, while others more heavily emphasize the personal satisfaction from doing the right thing and being sustainable. The social effects were mostly improved working conditions and more engagement from stakeholders, while the environmental impact was understood to mostly concern a decrease in consumption of finite resources, and a more efficient use of material and energy. Suggestions for improving CS work in Swedish SMEs are increased support and encouragement from the government, and more education and information about what companies can do and how they can do it with appropriate tools. Concluding, CS in Swedish SMEs must be studied further to gain a more comprehensive picture of how to support those SMEs already working with CS and those in the path of transitioning towards a more sustainable development.

This report details a design process that generates new forms from mundane materials and tools. By utilizing a structure of limitations to establish artificial constraints, making becomes a sort of game where the designer must negotiate the rules and objects in order to achieve a solution. The best results come from setting up explicit limitations about the type of manipulation permitted, establishing design objectives, specifying the material or tool to be explored. Throughout the process of designing a structure of limitations affords the designer a critical distance from the assumed uses of common materials and familiar tools resulting in new forms, and often unexpected results. Self-assigned parameters help the designer gain control over rules and constraints established by clients. / text

<p>Small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in developing countries are reported to encounter difficulties in accessing to formal external financing resource. Banking systems in this category of countries are either under-developed or newly reformed. The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether SME financing in China, measured by SMEs per capita, is affected by local bank competition, measured by number of banks per capita or share of foreign banks. Control variables such as Gross Domestic Product (GDP), level of infrastructure and geographic location are also included in the regression models.</p><p>The main findings are that: when disregarding the ownership of banks, bank competition has positive impact on SME financing across Chinese provinces, although the relationship is non-linear; and foreign banks do not significantly influence SME bank financing in China. The first finding generally support the conventional theories of industrial organization and the second one offers the basis for further arguments about the role of foreign banks in financing SMEs in China.</p>

The purpose with this research is to increase the understanding of how important knowledge sharing is within companies. It is also important to examine the institutional environment within countries and how this can affect a small and medium sized enterprise. In order to research these aspects we formulated a research question that resulted in; How can the institutional environment in different markets affect the knowledge sharing within an SME?                                                                    In our literature review we define what knowledge is and how it can be shared within companies. To get the understanding of the institutional environment we used a model that defines the different aspects that can impact companies within the society. We also examine what categories small and medium sized enterprises (SME) compared to large firms. To gather our information for our research we used a qualitative method with an abductive approach. We conducted a case-study about Scandinavian Orthopedic Laboratory (SOL). In the empirical chapter the respondents answers were structured so that we in the analytic part could compare and analyze the answers compared to the theory.   The conclusion indicates that the institutional factors within the society do affect companies, some factors more than others. Being an SME has made the knowledge sharing easier but it also indicates that it is important that everyone is included in the decision-making. / Syftet med den här uppsatsen är att öka förståelsen om hur viktigt kunskapsöverföring är inom företag. Det är också viktigt att undersöka den institutionella miljön inom länder och hur den miljön kan påverka små till medelstora  företag. För att kunna undersöka dessa olika aspekter har vi formulerat en forskningsfråga; Hur kan den institutionella miljön inom olika marknader påverka kunskapsöverföring inom ett SME?   I vårt litteraturavsnitt definierar vi vad kunskap är och hur kunskap kan bli överfört inom företag. För att få en förståelse om den institutionella miljön använde vi oss av en modell som definierar olika aspekter som kan påverka företag inom samhället. Vi undersöker också vad som kategoriserar ett litet till medelstort företag (SME) jämfört med ett stort företag. För att få den informationen som vi behöver för vår undersökning har vi använt oss av en kvantitativ undersökningsmetod med en abduktiv ansats. Vi genomförde en fallstudie om Scandinavian Orthopedic Laboratory (SOL). I det empiriska kapitlet har intervjupersonerna svar blivit konstruerade så att vi i det analytiska kapitlet kunde jämföra och analysera svaren jämfört med teorin.   Slutsaten visar på att de institutionella faktorerna inom ett samhälle påverkar företag, vissa mer än andra. Att vara ett litet till medelstort företag har gjort kunskapsöverföringen enklare men det visar också på att alla inom företaget ska vara inkluderade i beslutsfattandet.

SMEs are often described as slow adopters of technology. However, adopting e-commerce is one of many strategies taken by travel agents to re-intermediate themselves in the global travel market against the threat of disintermediation. Exploratory studies have revealed that Egyptian travel agents are laggards when it comes to technology adoption, although they perceive e-commerce as a beneficial tool that can increase their chances of survival. As many as 59.2% of Egyptian travel agents were found not to have websites (Egyptian Travel Agents Association, 2008), this study investigates the factors affecting e-commerce adoption by travel agents. Past literature has shown that there are three main factors affecting the adoption of e-commerce by SMEs. Environmental pressures push SMEs to adopt in order to bolster their survival chances. The benefits of adoption are critical factors considered by managers when making the adoption decision. Finally, there are barriers to e-commerce adoption. By modifying the technology acceptance model, this research conceptualizes the causal relationships amongst these three types of factors. The benefits and barriers to e-commerce adoption are found to mediate the relationship between environmental pressures and e-commerce adoption. This study employs mixed methods starting with a quantitative survey and following it up with qualitative interviews. A questionnaire was used to collect data from 411 adopter and non-adopter e-commerce travel agents. Later, 22 interviews were conducted with the managers of travel agents. Structural equation modelling produced findings reveal that environmental pressures significantly affect the perceived benefits of and barriers to adoption, in addition to having an indirect effect on adoption behaviour. This study contributes to theory as it responds to the claim that the factors affecting e-commerce adoption have not been well documented in the travel sector (Hung et al., 2011, Thomas et al., 2011), especially in the context of developing countries (Thulani et al., 2010). The findings reveal that the modified technology acceptance model successfully interprets e-commerce adoption. The study compares other adoption models with the research model and provides statistical criteria for this comparison. Its contribution to practice is twofold, affecting the managers of travel agencies and policy makers. Recognizing the factors affecting adoption would enable managers to devise strategies and prepare better agendas for expanding their businesses, while at the same time identifying any defects and training needs that present barriers. Meanwhile, recognizing the barriers to adoption could encourage government bodies and policy makers to implement appropriate measures, such as introducing protective and financial legislation to encourage SMEs to adopt technology, or to formulate national policies and initiatives aimed specifically at supporting the adoption of e-commerce by SMEs.

Workers in labour-intensive industries in developing countries have been described as the ‘hidden hands’ in the making of valuable goods in global production networks (GPNs). The process of improving the rights and entitlements of workers in GPNs have been referred to as ’social upgrading’. However, literature on social upgrading has tended to overlook the role of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), and there is still little scientific understanding of how small businesses in developing countries can engage in social upgrading. The aim of this thesis is to enhance the understanding of how SMEs in developing countries can improve working conditions and labour rights. Through a qualitative case study, this study goes beyond statements of leading Fair Trade brands to provide insights based on voices of both workers and owner-managers in a small garment factory in Nepal. This study brings forward observations where SMEs, shaped by their characteristics, are enabled to evade responsibilities concerning working conditions and labour rights.