The MEF2 family of transcription factors (MEF2A, MEF2C, and MEF2D) are crucial during skeletal muscle differentiation. Although the roles of MEF2D isoforms are well established, the roles of MEF2A and MEF2C are not as well understood. This thesis, we investigated the expression, localization, and function of MEF2A and MEF2C, using specific antibodies. While MEF2A is expressed in both proliferating and differentiated myoblasts, protein levels of MEF2C were only detected during differentiation. During early stages of differentiation MEF2A is expressed in both the cytoplasm and the nucleus. However during later stages of differentiation, it is localized predominately in the nucleus. MEF2C appears to be localized differently depending on which isoform is being investigated. Using an affinity purification and mass spectrometry based approach we identified PRMT1 as a unique interacting protein with MEF2A during skeletal muscle differentiation. PRMT1 is a protein arginine methyltransferase which mediates the addition of methyl groups onto various proteins including histone H4 arginine 3 (H3R4) which is associated with gene activation. Both MEF2A and PRMT1 occupy genomic targets of MEF2A. Inhibition of PRMT1 with a specific inhibitor delays C2C12 myoblast differentiation in the early stages of differentiation but no effect was observed during late stage differentiation. The MEF2 family of transcription factors show distinct but overlapping function during skeletal muscle differentiation.

Adult skeletal muscles can regenerate after injury due to the presence of satellite cells, a quiescent population of myogenic progenitor cells characterized by expressing the transcription factor Pax7. Once activated, satellite cells repair the muscle damage and replenish the stem cell niche due to the coordinated function of several transcription factors including Pax7 and the myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs). MRFs are skeletal muscle-specific transcription factors that can convert non-muscle cells into the myogenic lineage. MRFs are known to cooperate with other transcription factors in regulating the complex transcriptional network driving myogenic differentiation of muscle progenitors. The Six4 transcription factor emerges as a strong candidate for cooperating with MRFs. Six4 is expressed in skeletal muscles; the lack of a muscle development phenotype in Six4-null mice has been attributed to compensation by other Six family members. However, this did not exclude a critical role for Six4 during muscle development as Six1;Six4 double mutant mice show a more severe muscle phenotype than Six1 mutant mice. Nevertheless, the role of Six4 during adult muscle regeneration has never been addressed. I combined a partial loss-of-function of Six4 with high-throughput approaches to address the role of Six4 during adult skeletal muscle regeneration. I observed an important function of Six4 during muscle regeneration in vivo and in in vitro cell models. Using RNA interference assays against Six4 in tibialis anterior muscle regeneration after cardiotoxin-induced muscle damage, I observed for the first time that Six4 plays a role in proper muscle regeneration. The ability of the MRF MyoD, a central regulator of skeletal myogenesis, to convert a non-muscle cell model into the myogenic lineage was impaired with attenuated Six4 expression. I employed genome-wide approaches by combining ChIP-sequencing with gene expression profiling and identified a set of muscle genes coordinately regulated by both Six4 and MyoD. Throughout the genome, the cooperation between Six4 and MyoD was associated with binding of the H3K27me3 demethylase Utx and depletion of the H3K27me3 repressive chromatin mark. Together, these results reveal an important role for Six4 during adult muscle regeneration, and suggest a widespread mechanism of cooperation between Six4 and MyoD that correlates with modifying the epigenetic landscape of the regulatory regions of a large set of genes needed for efficient myogenesis.

The Hedgehog (Hh) signalling pathway is one of the key signalling pathways orchestrating intricate organogenesis, including the development of neural tube, heart and skeletal muscle. Yet, insufficient mechanistic understanding of its diverse roles is available. Here, we show the molecular mechanisms regulating the neurogenic, cardiogenic and myogenic properties of Hh signalling, via effector protein Gli2, in embryonic and adult stem cells. In Chapter 2, we show that Gli2 induces neurogenesis, whereas a dominant-negative form of Gli2 delays neurogenesis in P19 embryonal carcinoma (EC) cells, a mouse embryonic stem (ES) cell model. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Gli2 associates with Ascl1/Mash1 gene elements in differentiating P19 cells and activates the Ascl1/Mash1 promoter in vitro. Thus, Gli2 mediates neurogenesis in P19 cells at least in part by directly regulating Ascl1/Mash1 expression. In Chapter 3, we demonstrate that Gli2 and MEF2C bind each other’s regulatory elements and regulate each other’s expression while enhancing cardiomyogenesis in P19 cells. Furthermore, dominant-negative Gli2 and MEF2C proteins downregulate each other’s expression while imparing cardiomyogenesis. Lastly, we show that Gli2 and MEF2C form a protein complex, which synergistically activates cardiac muscle related promoters. In Chapter 4, we illustrate that Gli2 associates with MyoD gene elements while enhancing skeletal myogenesis in P19 cells and activates the MyoD promoter in vitro. Furthermore, inhibition of Hh signalling in muscle satellite cells and in proliferating myoblasts leads to reduction in MyoD and MEF2C expression. Finally, we demonstrate that endogenous Hh signalling is important for MyoD transcriptional activity and that Gli2, MEF2C and MyoD form a protein complex capable of inducing skeletal muscle-specific gene expression. Thus, Gli2, MEF2C and MyoD participate in a regulatory loop and form a protein complex capable of inducing skeletal muscle-specific gene expression. Our results provide a link between the regulation of tissue-restricted factors like Mash1, MEF2C and MyoD, and a general signal-regulated Gli2 transcription factor. We therefore provide novel mechanistic insights into the neurogenic, cardiogenic and myogenic properties of Gli2 in vitro, and offer novel plausible explanations for its in vivo functions. These results may also be important for the development of stem cell therapy strategies.

The retinoblastoma tumor suppressor (pRb) is thought to orchestrate terminal differentiation by inhibiting cell proliferation and apoptosis and stimulating lineage-specific transcription factors. In this thesis I have shown that in the absence of pRb, differentiating primary myoblasts fused to form short myotubes that never twitched and degenerated via a non-apoptotic mechanism. The shortened myotubes exhibited an impaired mitochondrial network, mitochondrial perinuclear aggregation, autophagic degradation and reduced ATP production. Bcl-2 and autophagy inhibitors restored mitochondrial function and rescued muscle degeneration, leading to twitching myotubes that expressed normal levels of muscle-specific proteins and eventually exited the cell-cycle. A hypoxia-induced glycolytic switch also rescued the myogenic defect after chronic or acute inactivation of Rb in a HIF-1-dependent manner. These results demonstrate that pRb is required to inhibit apoptosis in myoblasts and autophagy in myotubes but not to activate the differentiation program. I next tested the effect of retinoblastoma protein family members – p107 and p130 – on skeletal myogenesis in the absence of Rb. Chronic or acute inactivation of Rb plus p130 or Rb plus p107 increased myoblast cell death and reduced myotube formation, yet expression of Bcl-2, treatment with autophagy antagonist or exposure to hypoxia extended myotube survival, leading to long, contracting myotubes that appeared indistinguishable from control myotubes. Triple mutations in Rb family genes further accelerated cell death and led to elongated myocytes or myotubes containing two nuclei, some of which survived and twitched under hypoxia. Whereas nuclei in Rb-/- myotubes were unable to stably exit the cell-cycle, myotubes lacking both p107/p130 became permanently post-mitotic, suggesting that pRb, but not p107 or p130 may be lost in cancer because of the unique requirement for cell-cycle exit during terminal differentiation. This thesis demonstrates that pRb is required to inhibit apoptosis in myoblasts and autophagy in myotubes but not to activate the differentiation program, and reveal a novel link between pRb and cell metabolism.

The retinoblastoma tumor suppressor (pRb) is thought to orchestrate terminal differentiation by inhibiting cell proliferation and apoptosis and stimulating lineage-specific transcription factors. In this thesis I have shown that in the absence of pRb, differentiating primary myoblasts fused to form short myotubes that never twitched and degenerated via a non-apoptotic mechanism. The shortened myotubes exhibited an impaired mitochondrial network, mitochondrial perinuclear aggregation, autophagic degradation and reduced ATP production. Bcl-2 and autophagy inhibitors restored mitochondrial function and rescued muscle degeneration, leading to twitching myotubes that expressed normal levels of muscle-specific proteins and eventually exited the cell-cycle. A hypoxia-induced glycolytic switch also rescued the myogenic defect after chronic or acute inactivation of Rb in a HIF-1-dependent manner. These results demonstrate that pRb is required to inhibit apoptosis in myoblasts and autophagy in myotubes but not to activate the differentiation program. I next tested the effect of retinoblastoma protein family members – p107 and p130 – on skeletal myogenesis in the absence of Rb. Chronic or acute inactivation of Rb plus p130 or Rb plus p107 increased myoblast cell death and reduced myotube formation, yet expression of Bcl-2, treatment with autophagy antagonist or exposure to hypoxia extended myotube survival, leading to long, contracting myotubes that appeared indistinguishable from control myotubes. Triple mutations in Rb family genes further accelerated cell death and led to elongated myocytes or myotubes containing two nuclei, some of which survived and twitched under hypoxia. Whereas nuclei in Rb-/- myotubes were unable to stably exit the cell-cycle, myotubes lacking both p107/p130 became permanently post-mitotic, suggesting that pRb, but not p107 or p130 may be lost in cancer because of the unique requirement for cell-cycle exit during terminal differentiation. This thesis demonstrates that pRb is required to inhibit apoptosis in myoblasts and autophagy in myotubes but not to activate the differentiation program, and reveal a novel link between pRb and cell metabolism.

The Hedgehog (Hh) signalling pathway is one of the key signalling pathways orchestrating intricate organogenesis, including the development of neural tube, heart and skeletal muscle. Yet, insufficient mechanistic understanding of its diverse roles is available. Here, we show the molecular mechanisms regulating the neurogenic, cardiogenic and myogenic properties of Hh signalling, via effector protein Gli2, in embryonic and adult stem cells. In Chapter 2, we show that Gli2 induces neurogenesis, whereas a dominant-negative form of Gli2 delays neurogenesis in P19 embryonal carcinoma (EC) cells, a mouse embryonic stem (ES) cell model. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Gli2 associates with Ascl1/Mash1 gene elements in differentiating P19 cells and activates the Ascl1/Mash1 promoter in vitro. Thus, Gli2 mediates neurogenesis in P19 cells at least in part by directly regulating Ascl1/Mash1 expression. In Chapter 3, we demonstrate that Gli2 and MEF2C bind each other’s regulatory elements and regulate each other’s expression while enhancing cardiomyogenesis in P19 cells. Furthermore, dominant-negative Gli2 and MEF2C proteins downregulate each other’s expression while imparing cardiomyogenesis. Lastly, we show that Gli2 and MEF2C form a protein complex, which synergistically activates cardiac muscle related promoters. In Chapter 4, we illustrate that Gli2 associates with MyoD gene elements while enhancing skeletal myogenesis in P19 cells and activates the MyoD promoter in vitro. Furthermore, inhibition of Hh signalling in muscle satellite cells and in proliferating myoblasts leads to reduction in MyoD and MEF2C expression. Finally, we demonstrate that endogenous Hh signalling is important for MyoD transcriptional activity and that Gli2, MEF2C and MyoD form a protein complex capable of inducing skeletal muscle-specific gene expression. Thus, Gli2, MEF2C and MyoD participate in a regulatory loop and form a protein complex capable of inducing skeletal muscle-specific gene expression. Our results provide a link between the regulation of tissue-restricted factors like Mash1, MEF2C and MyoD, and a general signal-regulated Gli2 transcription factor. We therefore provide novel mechanistic insights into the neurogenic, cardiogenic and myogenic properties of Gli2 in vitro, and offer novel plausible explanations for its in vivo functions. These results may also be important for the development of stem cell therapy strategies.

The Hedgehog (Hh) signalling pathway is one of the key signalling pathways orchestrating intricate organogenesis, including the development of neural tube, heart and skeletal muscle. Yet, insufficient mechanistic understanding of its diverse roles is available. Here, we show the molecular mechanisms regulating the neurogenic, cardiogenic and myogenic properties of Hh signalling, via effector protein Gli2, in embryonic and adult stem cells. In Chapter 2, we show that Gli2 induces neurogenesis, whereas a dominant-negative form of Gli2 delays neurogenesis in P19 embryonal carcinoma (EC) cells, a mouse embryonic stem (ES) cell model. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Gli2 associates with Ascl1/Mash1 gene elements in differentiating P19 cells and activates the Ascl1/Mash1 promoter in vitro. Thus, Gli2 mediates neurogenesis in P19 cells at least in part by directly regulating Ascl1/Mash1 expression. In Chapter 3, we demonstrate that Gli2 and MEF2C bind each other’s regulatory elements and regulate each other’s expression while enhancing cardiomyogenesis in P19 cells. Furthermore, dominant-negative Gli2 and MEF2C proteins downregulate each other’s expression while imparing cardiomyogenesis. Lastly, we show that Gli2 and MEF2C form a protein complex, which synergistically activates cardiac muscle related promoters. In Chapter 4, we illustrate that Gli2 associates with MyoD gene elements while enhancing skeletal myogenesis in P19 cells and activates the MyoD promoter in vitro. Furthermore, inhibition of Hh signalling in muscle satellite cells and in proliferating myoblasts leads to reduction in MyoD and MEF2C expression. Finally, we demonstrate that endogenous Hh signalling is important for MyoD transcriptional activity and that Gli2, MEF2C and MyoD form a protein complex capable of inducing skeletal muscle-specific gene expression. Thus, Gli2, MEF2C and MyoD participate in a regulatory loop and form a protein complex capable of inducing skeletal muscle-specific gene expression. Our results provide a link between the regulation of tissue-restricted factors like Mash1, MEF2C and MyoD, and a general signal-regulated Gli2 transcription factor. We therefore provide novel mechanistic insights into the neurogenic, cardiogenic and myogenic properties of Gli2 in vitro, and offer novel plausible explanations for its in vivo functions. These results may also be important for the development of stem cell therapy strategies.

One of the major drawbacks of using stem cell therapy to treat muscular dystrophies is the challenge of isolating sufficient numbers of suitable precursor cells for transplantation. As such, a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved during muscle development, which would increase the proportion of embryonic stem cells that can differentiate into skeletal myocytes, is essential. In conditional SOX7-/- mice, we observed that the loss of SOX7 in satellite cells resulted in poor differentiation and fusion. In vivo, we observed fewer Pax7+ satellite cells in the mice lacking SOX7 as well as smaller muscle fibers. RT-qPCR data also revealed that Pax7, MRF and MHC3 transcript levels were down-regulated in SOX7 knockdown mice. Surprisingly, when SOX7 was over-expressed in embryonic stem cells, we found that there was a defect in making muscle precursor cells, specifically a failure to activate Pax7 expression. Taken together, these results suggest that SOX7 expression is required for the proper regulation of skeletal myogenesis.

No description available.

Le système d’activation du plasminogène (AP) comprenant les protéases uPA et tPA, et leur inhibiteur PAI-1, génère une activité protéolytique dans la matrice extracellulaire et contribue au remodelage tissulaire dans une grande variété de processus physiopathologiques, y compris la myogenèse squelettique, et la différenciation adipocytaire.Nous avons évalué son rôle spécifique dans la différenciation des cellules souches embryonnaires (ES) de souris. On a trouvé que les activités d’uPA et de tPA ainsi que les niveaux protéiques de PAI-1 sont maximaux dans les cellules différenciées, contrairement aux cellules ES indifférenciées où ils sont indétectables et augmentent progressivement dès le jour 3 de la différenciation. La différenciation adipocytaire dans le modèle des cellules ES est inhibée par le traitement par l’amiloride, un inhibiteur spécifique de l’uPA. Egalement, les cellules ES surexprimant une forme active du PAI-1 sous le contrôle d’un système d’expression inductible, montrent des capacités adipogéniques réduites après l’induction du gène. Nos résultats démontrent que le contrôle de l’adipogenèse des cellules ES par le système AP correspond à des étapes successives, différentes, depuis les cellules indifférenciées jusqu’aux cellules bien différenciées. De plus, les capacités de la différenciation adipogénique des cellules pluripotentes induites déficientes en PAI-1 sont augmentées par rapport aux cellules contrôles.Similairement, la myogenèse squelettique est réduite par l’inhibition de l’uPA par l’amiloride ou par la surexpression du PAI-1 durant l’étape terminale de la différenciation du jour 7 au jour 24. Cependant, l’interférence avec l’uPA durant les jours 0 à 3 de la différenciation, stimule la formation des myotubes. Les différenciations cardiomyocyotaire, neuronale, endothéliale et du du muscle lisse ne sont pas affectées par le traitement à l’amiloride ou la surexpression du PAI-1.Nos résultats montrent que le système AP est capable de moduler spécifiquement l’adipogenèse et la myogenèse squelettique des cellules ES par des mécanismes moléculaires successifs différents. / Regulation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) plays an important functional biological role either in physiological or pathological conditions. The plasminogen activation (PA) system, comprising the uPA and tPA proteases and their inhibitor PAI-1, is one of the main suppliers of extracellular proteolytic activity contributing to tissue remodeling. Although its function in development is well documented, its precise role in mouse embryonic stem cell (ESC) differentiationin vitro is unknown. We found that uPA and tPA activities and PAI-1 protein are very low in undifferentiated ESCs and increase strongly during the differentiation, reaching a maximum in well differentiated cells. Adipocyte formation by ESCs is inhibited by amiloride treatment, a specific uPA inhibitor. Likewise, ESCs expressing ectopic PAI-1 under the control of an inducible expression system, display reduced adipogenic capacities after induction of the gene. Our results demonstrate that the control of ESC adipogenesis by the PA system correspond to different successive steps from undifferentiated to well differentiated ESCs. Furthermore, the adipogenic differentiation capacities of PAI-1-/- induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are augmented as compared to wt iPSCs. Similarly, skeletal myogenesis is decreased by uPA inhibition or PAI-1 overexpression during the terminal step of differentiation. However, interfering with uPA during days 0 to 3 of the differentiation process augments ESC myotube formation. Neither neurogenesis, cardiomyogenesis, endothelial cell nor smooth muscle formation are affected by amiloride or PAI-1 induction. Our results show that the PA system is capable to specifically modulate adipogenesis and skeletal myogenesis of ESCs by successive different molecular mechanisms.