Ces vingt dernières années, le développement de réseaux haute résolution sismologiques et géodésiques denses a permis la découverte de nouveaux signaux géophysiques parmi lesquels on trouve les trémors non-volcaniques (Non-volcanic tremor, NVT, Obara 2002) et les glissements lents épisodiques (Slow Slip Event, SSE, Dragert et al., 2001). La combinaison de NVT et de SSE est communément observée le long des frontières de plaques, entre la zone sismogénique bloquée à faible profondeur et la zone en fluage ductile à plus grande profondeur (Dragert et al., 2004). Cette association définie des glissements et trémors épisodiques (Episodic Tremor and Slip, ETS), systématiquement associés à des surpressions de fluides et à des conditions proches de la rupture. Dans cette thèse, nous proposons de combiner une étude microstructurale de roches exhumées avec une approche par modélisation numérique afin de reproduire et de mieux comprendre la mécanique des glissements et trémors épisodiques.Nous nous sommes concentrés sur des roches continentales provenant de la Zone de Cisaillement Est du Tende (Corse, France), correspondant à une zone de cisaillement Alpine kilométrique ayant enregistré une déformation dans la zone de subduction (10 kb / 400-450°C, Gueydan et al., 2003). Ces conditions pression-température sont cohérentes avec la localisation des ETS dans les zones de subduction. Les analyses microstructurales et EBSD de ces roches mettent en évidence des localisations de la déformation le long de zones de cisaillement centimétriques contrôlées par une rhéologie dépendante de la taille des grains. La microfracturation de la phase dure (ici du feldspath) et le colmatage de ces microfractures correspondent, respectivement, à de processus de réduction et d’augmentation de la taille des grains.La plupart des récentes modélisations des ETS sont basées sur une loi frictionnelle dite rate-and-state, associant les SSE et les NVT à un cisaillement sur un plan. Contrairement à ces modèles, nous souhaitons modéliser l’ensemble de la roche (et non pas uniquement un plan) avec une rhéologie ductile dépendante de la taille des grains directement guidée par nos observations microstructurales (avec microfracturation et colmatage), Nous faisons l’hypothèse que les SSE peuvent résulter d’une localisation ductile de la déformation et non d’un glissement sur des fractures. Durant la localisation de la déformation, le pompage des fluides peut déclencher une fracturation de la roche par surpression de fluide, ce qui pourrait être la signature des NVT. Le modèle numérique 1D présenté ici nous permettra de valider ces hypothèses. En suivant la loi de Darcy, notre approche nous permet également de prédire les variations de la pression de pore en fonction des variations de la porosité/perméabilité et du pompage des fluides.Les résultats numériques montrent que l’évolution dynamique des microstructures, dépendante des fluides, définie des cycles de localisation ductile de la déformation liés aux augmentations de la pression de fluide. Notre modèle démontre que la disponibilité des fluides et l’efficacité du pompage des fluides contrôlent l’occurrence des ETS. Nous prédisons également les conditions pression-température nécessaires au déclenchement des ETS : 400-500°C et 30-50 km de profondeur en subduction, et ~500°C et 15-30 km de profondeur le long des zones de décrochement. Ces conditions PT sont cohérentes avec les exemples naturels.Aussi simple soit-elle, notre modèle mécanique s’appuyant sur des observations de terrain décrit correctement la relation entre surpressions de fluides, rhéologie dépendant de la taille des grains et le déclenchement des ETS. Des travaux restent à entreprendre comme par exemple la comparaison directe de nos résultats avec des données géophysiques (GPS) ou bien l’introduction d’un nouvelle assemble minéralogique, comme par exemple des roches mafiques pour prendre en compte des minéralogies océaniques. / These last twenty years, the development of dense and highly sensitive seismologic and geodetic networks permits the discovery of new geophysical signals named non-volcanic tremor (Obara 2002) and slow slip events (Dragert et al., 2001). The combination of non-volcanic tremor and transient slow slip is commonly observed at plate interface, between locked/seismogenic zone at low depths and stable/ductile creep zone at larger depths (Dragert et al., 2004). This association defines episodic tremor and slip, systematically highlighted by over-pressurized fluids and near failure shear stress conditions. In this thesis we propose to combine a microstructural analysis of exhumed rocks with a modeling approach in order to accurately reproduce and understand the physics of episodic tremor and slip.We focus on continental rocks from the East Tenda Shear Zone (Corsica, France), a kilometer-wide localized Alpine shear zone that record HP/LT deformation (10kb / 400-450°C, Gueydan et al., 2003). Such pressure-temperature conditions are consistent with the location of episodic tremor and slip in subduction zone. Microstructural and EBSD analyses on these rocks describe a pattern of strain localization in centimeter-scale shear zones guiding by a grain size-sensitive creep. Microfracturing of the strong phase (feldspar here) and the sealing of these microfractures act, respectively, as grain size decrease and grain size increase processes.Most of recent modeling approaches of episodic tremor and slip are based on the rate-and-state variable friction law, describing slow slip event and non-volcanic tremor as slow shear slip on a plane. In contrast with such models, we wish to model the entire rock volume, with a ductile grain size-sensitive rheology guided by our microstructural observations (e.g. microfracturing and sealing as grain size variation processes). We hypothesize that slow slip events may result from ductile strain localization and not transient slip on fractures. Fluid pumping during strain localization may trigger whole rock fracturing at near lithostatic conditions that can be the signature of non-volcanic tremor. The 1D numerical model presented here will allow us to validate these assumptions.We also can predict pore fluid pressure variation as a function of changes in porosity/permeability and strain rate-dependent fluid pumping following the Darcy’s flow law. The fluid-enhanced dynamic evolution of microstructure defines cycles of ductile strain localization related to the increase in pore fluid pressure. We show that slow slip events can be ductile processes related to transient strain localization, while non-volcanic tremor can correspond to fracturing of the whole rock at peak of pore fluid pressure. Our model shows that the availability of fluids and the efficiency of fluid pumping control the occurrence of episodic tremor and slip. We also well predict the temperature and depth ranges of episodic tremor and slip: 400-500°C and 30-50 km in subduction zones and ~500°C and 15-30 km in strike slip settings, consistent with natural examples.As simplistic as it is, our field-guided mechanical model well describe, at first order, the relation between high pore fluid pressure, grain size-sensitive rheology and episodic tremor and slip. Some efforts remain to be done like a real fit of geophysical data (GPS) or the introduction of the new mineralogical assemblage, such as mafic rocks to reproduce oceanic environment.

A falta de controle e planejamento dos espaços públicos, entre eles, as calçadas, gera problemas como a falta de segurança e de acesso aos equipamentos urbanos e até impede a livre circulação das pessoas. As calçadas são uma pequena, mas importante parte da complexa infraestrutura urbana. O provimento de calçadas adequadas é um meio de incentivo ao deslocamento a pé e ao uso de transporte coletivo. A calçada não deveria oferecer nenhum risco aos pedestres, porém, grande parte das calçadas existentes no Brasil é imprópria para a circulação, seja pela existência de obstáculos, seja pela precariedade ou inadequação dos materiais utilizados em sua construção. Essa falta de qualidade das calçadas é a causa de muitos acidentes. Os pedestres em geral e, além dos idosos, principalmente as crianças e as pessoas portadoras de necessidades especiais, podem ser considerados usuários vulneráveis. No presente trabalho, as exigências dos usuários, no que se refere à segurança em uso, de acordo com a abordagem de desempenho, foram identificadas como sendo segurança ao risco de quedas, segurança ao risco de atropelamentos, segurança ao risco de lesões por choque e acessibilidade. As exigências dos usuários foram traduzidas em requisitos de desempenho a serem cumpridos em calçadas seguras e, após, foram identificados os respectivos critérios, níveis de atendimento e métodos de avaliação, com base na legislação e bibliografia. Com isso, foi elaborado um instrumento de avaliação de segurança em calçadas. Um estudo de caso em um trecho da Av. Independência, em Porto Alegre, foi realizado para testar o instrumento elaborado, com aplicação experimental em 17 calçadas. O instrumento mostrou-se eficiente na aquisição, processamento e registro de dados. Para a validação definitiva do instrumento, é necessário que se amplie os testes. Além disso, foi realizada pesquisa exploratória com aplicação do ensaio com o Pêndulo Britânico, para avaliação da resistência ao escorregamento. Todas as calçadas foram aprovadas quanto a este critério. O método de avaliação se mostrou adequado, porém limitado a calçadas com pequena inclinação. Adicionalmente, as diversas falhas relativas à segurança encontradas nas calçadas avaliadas foram analisadas. Nenhuma calçada do estudo de caso foi aprovada e considerada segura. A calçada com pior desempenho atendeu a apenas 38,88% dos critérios. Já o melhor resultado foi de uma calçada com taxa de atendimento aos critérios de 68,42%. Os critérios menos atendidos foram o desnível em relação à via, o rebaixo para acesso de veículos adequado, rampa nos pontos de travessia e a sinalização tátil no piso. Diante da grande quantidade de falhas encontradas no estudo de caso, aponta-se a ausência de um técnico no processo de construção de uma calçada, como uma das principais causas das não conformidades, junto à falta de um documento, preferencialmente uma Norma Técnica, que reúna as informações necessárias para o projeto de calçadas. Desta forma, este trabalho visa contribuir para o tema desempenho de calçadas, com foco nos requisitos relativos à segurança dos usuários. / The absence of control and planning of public spaces, including sidewalks, creates problems such as lack of security and access to urban equipment and even prevents the free movement of people. The sidewalks are a small but important part of the complex urban infrastructure. Providing adequate sidewalks is a means of encouraging walking and the use of public transport. The sidewalk should not pose any risk to pedestrians, but most of the existing sidewalks in Brazil are unfit for circulation, either by the existence of obstacles, or by the precariousness or inadequacy of the materials used in their construction. This lack of quality in sidewalks is the cause of many accidents. Pedestrians in general and, in addition to the elderly, especially children and people with special needs, can be considered vulnerable users. In this work, users' requirements regarding safety in use, according to the performance approach, have been identified as safety for the risk of falls, safety for the risk of pedestrian crashes, safety for the risk of shock injuries and accessibility. The users’ requirements were translated into performance requirements to be met on safe sidewalks and, afterwards, the respective criteria, suitable levels and evaluation methods were identified, based on legislation and bibliography. And therewith, a safety assessment instrument for sidewalks was developed. A case study on an excerpt from Av. Independência, in Porto Alegre, was carried out to test the instrument, with experimental application on 17 sidewalks. The instrument was efficient in data acquisition, processing and recording. For definitive validation of the instrument, it is necessary to expand the tests. In addition, an exploratory study was carried out with the application of the British Pendulum test to evaluate the slip resistance. All sidewalks were approved for this criterion. The method of evaluation was adequate, but limited to sidewalks with a small slope. In addition, the various safety flaws found on the evaluated sidewalks were analyzed. No sidewalk from the case study was approved and considered safe. The sidewalk with the poorest performance met only 38.88% of the criteria. The best result was a sidewalk with a rate of meeting the criteria of 68.42%. The least attended criteria were the height in relation to the roadway, adequate vehicle access ramp, ramp at crossing points and tactile signage on the ground. Considering the large number of flaws found in the case study, it is pointed out that the absence of a technician in the process of building a sidewalk is one of the main causes of nonconformities, due to the lack of a document, preferably a Technical Standard, that gathers the necessary information for sidewalk projects. Thus, this work aims to contribute to the theme of performance of sidewalks, focusing on requirements regarding user safety.

Nous avons utilisé deux techniques de géodésie spatiale (Global Navigation Satellite System, GNSS, et Interférométrie d'images radar satellite, InSAR) pour estimer la cinématique actuelle et les taux de glissement de la plupart des failles de l'Est et du Nord-Est de l'Iran. En Iran de l'Est, 14 mm/an de cisaillement dextre est accommodé sur les failles décrochantes dextres Est-Lut, West-Lut, Kuhbanan, Anar et Dehshir. Ces failles glissent latéralement à 5.6 ± 0.6, 4.4 ± 0.4, 3.6 ± 1.3, 2.0 ± 0.7 et 1.4 ± 0.9 mm/an, respectivement, de l'est à l'ouest. Au nord de ces failles, nos vitesses GNSS suggèrent une rotation de block rigide du bassin Sud Caspien (SCB) autour d'un pôle qui se trouve plus loin qu'on ne le pensait précédemment. Ce mouvement NW de SCB implique un glissement dextre de jusqu'à 7 mm/an sur la faille Ashkabad, et jusqu'à 4-6 mm/an de glissement senestre à travers le système des failles de Shahroud (SFS). L'analyse InSAR en séries temporelles localise 4.75 ± 0.5 mm/an de glissement senestre plus spécifiquement sur les failles d'Abr et Jajarm. / Eastern Iran has a crucial role in accommodating the Arabia-Eurasia convergence. We used permanent and campaign Global Positioning System (GPS) networks to estimate the present-day kinematics and the slip rates on most faults in Central-Eastern Iran and Kopeh Dagh. Also we used differential Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) interferometry to estimate the interseismic deformation along two major faults in Eastern Iran, the Shahroud and Doruneh faults. In Eastern Iran, 14 mm/yr of right-lateral shear is accommodated on the East-Lut, West-Lut, Kuhbanan, Anar and Dehshir right-lateral faults. These faults slip laterally at 5.6 ± 0.6, 4.4 ± 0.4, 3.6 ± 1.3, 2.0 ± 0.7 and 1.4 ±0.9 mm/yr, respectively from east to west and they divide the Central-Eastern Iranian crust in five blocks that are moving northwards at 6-13 mm/yr with respect to Eurasia. The NS faults accommodate additional NS shortening by rotating counterclockwise in the horizontal plane, at current rates of up to 0.8°Ma. In the North of theses faults is situated the EW orientated left-lateral Doruneh fault. We obtain less than 4 mm/yr of slip rate using SAR ENVISAT data which correspond to the GPS results from average velocity differences to each side of the fault. North of Doruneh, our GPS velocities suggest a rigid-body rotation of the South Caspian Basin (SCB) about an Euler pole that is located further away than previously thought. This NW motion of SCB is accommodated by right-lateral slip on the Ashkabad fault (at a rate of up to 7 mm/yr) and by up to 4-6 mm/yr of summed left-lateral slip across the Shahroud left-lateral strike-slip system. The time series analysis of two ENVISAT SAR images covering the Shahroud faults system helps localizing the left-lateral slip on individual faults. We perform a 2-D elastic half-space modeling of two tracks. The modeling results yield 4.75 ± 0.5 mm/yr of left-lateral slip rate on the Abr (~ longitude 55°) and Jajarm (~longitude 56°) strand of the Shahroud fault system with a 10 ± 4 km locking depth, highlighting the important contribution of these faults to seismic hazard in the highly populated NE Iran.

Depuis maintenant une dizaine d'années, la vision du cycle sismique en zone de subduction a beaucoup évolué. Des découvertes récentes ont mis en évidence une grande diversité des régimes de glissement dans ces zones, avec notamment des glissements asismiques transitoires appelés « séismes lents » (SSE) et des vibrations de faibles amplitudes, persistantes dans le temps, appelées « trémors non volcaniques » (NVT). Ce travail a pour objectif l'étude des trémors non volcaniques afin de caractériser ces nouvelles manifestations des zones de faille. Nous avons abordé ce problème avec deux approches distinctes :1. Observer les trémors dans le milieu naturel afin de déterminer leurs caractéristiques. La zone étudiée correspond à la lacune sismique de Guerrero le long de la subduction mexicaine. Nous avons développé une méthode de détection et de localisation des NVT au Mexique grâce à des analyses d'antennes par formation de voie sur les corrélations. Cette méthode permet de mettre en évidence cer taines caractéristiques des NVT : une complexité des sources pour un épisode de trémors, une corrélation entre les activités de NVT et les pics de vitesse des glissements lents à plus long terme. Par ailleurs, l'étude de l'impact du séisme de Maule (2010, Chili, Mw 8.8) au Mexique montre qu'il a déclenché le second sous évènement du séisme lent de 2009-2010. Ce déclenchement d'un SSE s'ac- compagne de fortes activités de trémors, modulées par les ondes du séisme de Maule dans un premier temps, puis simplement associées au SSE.2. Modéliser les trémors expérimentalement et numériquement pour mieux com- prendre leur origine physique et leurs évolutions sur le long terme. Nous avons en particulier utilisé une expérience de frottement à faible vitesse qui indique une corrélation systématique entre les accélérations d'un glissement et l'émission de signaux qui ressemblent à des NVT. Une modélisation numérique de la zone de subduction mexicaine est également présentée et montre la possibilité de reproduire des trémors en considérant une transition d'affaiblissement critique associée à un processus de décrochage. / The vision of the seismic cycle in subduction zones has considerably evolved over the last 10 years. New discoveries has pointed the diversity of slip behaviors in these zones with aseismic slow slip called « slow slip events » (SSE) and persistent low amplitudes vibrations called « non-volcanic tremors » (NVT). The goal of this thesis is to study the non-volcanic tremors in order to characterize these new manifestations of fault zones. We used two different approaches: 1. We first observed the non-volcanic tremors in the nature in order to characterize this phenomenon. The area of interest is the Guerrero seismic gap along the Mexican subduction zone. We develop a new detection and location method based on beamforming of correlations of seismic signals. This new method exhibits some characteristics of NVT: a complex source for a single tremor episode and a correlation between the NVT episodes and the long-term peak of movement velocity in southwards direction. Moreover, the study of the consequences of the Maule earthquake on the Mexican subduction zone showed that this earthquake triggered the 2009-2010 SSE in Guerrero. This triggering of slow slip is accompanied by strong seismic tremor actvity that are first modulated by the passing waves and then associated to the SSE. 2. We model numerically and experimentally the tremors in order to better understand their physical origin and their long-term evolution. We used a very slow friction experiment that indicates a systematic correlation between slip acceleration of a slider and emission of acoustic signals that are similar to NVT. A numerical modeling of the Mexican subduction zone is also presented and shows the possibility to reproduce NVT with a critical depinning transition.

abstract: The movement between tectonic plates is accommodated through brittle (elastic) displacement on the plate boundary faults and ductile permanent deformation on the fault borderland. The elastic displacement along the fault can occur in the form of either large seismic events or aseismic slip, known as fault creep. Fault creep mainly occurs at the deep ductile portion of the crust, where the temperature is high. Nonetheless, aseismic creep can also occur on the shallow brittle portion of the fault segments that are characterized by frictionally weak material, elevated pore fluid pressure, or geometrical complexity. Creeping segments are assumed to safely release the accumulated strain(Kodaira et al., 2004; Rice, 1992)(Kodaira et al., 2004; Rice, 1992)(Kodaira et al., 2004; Rice, 1992)(Kodaira et al., 2004; Rice, 1992)(Kodaira et al., 2004; Rice, 1992) on the fault and also impede propagation of the seismic rupture. The rate of aseismic slip on creeping faults, however, might not be steady in time and instead consist of successive periods of acceleration and deceleration, known as slow slip events (SSEs). SSEs, which aseismically release the strain energy over a period of days to months, rather than the seconds to minutes characteristic of a typical earthquake, have been interpreted as earthquake precursors and as possible triggering factor for major earthquakes. Therefore, understanding the partitioning of seismic and aseismic fault slip and evolution of creep is fundamental to constraining the fault earthquake potential and improving operational seismic hazard models. Thanks to advances in tectonic geodesy, it is now possible to detect the fault movement in high spatiotemporal resolution and develop kinematic models of the creep evolution on the fault to determine the budget of seismic and aseismic slip. In this dissertation, I measure the decades-long time evolution of fault-related crustal deformation along the San Andrea Fault in California and the northeast Japan subduction zone using space-borne geodetic techniques, such as Global Positioning System (GPS) and Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR). The surface observation of deformation combined with seismic data set allow constraining the time series of creep distribution on the fault surface at seismogenic depth. The obtained time-dependent kinematic models reveal that creep in both study areas evolves through a series of SSEs, each lasting for several months. Using physics-based models informed by laboratory experiments, I show that the transient elevation of pore fluid pressure is the driving mechanism of SSEs. I further investigate the link between SSEs and evolution of seismicity on neighboring locked segments, which has implications for seismic hazard models and also provides insights into the pattern of microstructure on the fault surface. I conclude that while creeping segments act as seismic rupture barriers, SSEs on these zones might promote seismicity on adjacent seismogenic segments, thus change the short-term earthquake forecast. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Geological Sciences 2018

La mer de Marmara est la clef de voûte d’un système hydrique complexe entre la Méditerranée la mer Noire où l’équilibre des courants a souvent été rompu, lorsque le niveau global des océans passait sous celui des détroits. L’alternance de sédiments lacustres et marins témoigne de ces variations. La mer de Marmara est aussi une structure tectonique active traversée par la branche nord de la faille Nord-Anatolienne. Cette faille décrochante continentale, l’une des plus longues du monde, est régulièrement à l’origine de forts tremblements de terre. Les études scientifiques sont nombreuses à vouloir caractériser le fonctionnement actuel et passé de la faille pour préciser l’aléa sismique auquel Istanbul est exposé. Cette thèse est constituée de deux études qui s’attaquent à cette question.La première est une étude de la géométrie de la croûte basée sur l’analyse d’un modèle 3D construit par inversion de données gravimétriques corrigées de l’influence des bassins sédimentaires. Le modèle permet de quantifier le rôle des contraintes extensives et révèle le rôle de flux ductiles dans l’amincissement de la croûte inférieur étalé au-delà des limites des bassins. La deuxième étude visait à confirmer les modèles d’âges proposés actuellement en mer de Marmara par l’étude direct des sédiments à l’origine des premiers réflecteurs sismiques interprétés. Les méthodes employées vont de la géophysique à la caractérisation paléo-environnementale des dépôts en passant par le paléomagnétisme et la téphrochronologie. Les résultats ont permis de dater précisément le premier réflecteur ainsi que d’en comprendre l’origine. L’âge que nous proposons est plus jeune que ceux déterminés jusqu’alors. / The Marmara Sea is the keystone of a complex hydrological system between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. There, the balance between inputs and outputs has been disturbed during glacial periods when the global ocean level dropped below the sill depths, isolating the Marmara Sea. The alternation of marine and lacustrine sediments reflects these variations. The Sea of Marmara is also an active tectonic structure cut by the North-Anatolian fault northern branch. The ruptures of this continental dextral transform fault, one of the longest in the world, are regularly causing massive earthquakes. Many scientific studies are aiming at characterizing the fault structure and its functioning in the hope of being able to foresee the next earthquake close to Istanbul. This thesis presents two studies tackling this subject.The first one presents an interpretation of the crust geometry based on the analysis of a 3D crustal model built from the inversion of gravity data corrected from the influence of sedimentary basins. From the model, we quantify the role of extension in the basin opening and show the existence of ductile flows, in the lower crust, that spread the thinning away from the basins. The second study purpose was to confirm or reverse the sedimentary age models available in the Marmara Sea through the direct study of the sediments constituting the first main reflector interpreted in the models. We used a broad range of methods to build a new age model for one core such as geophysics, paleo-magnetism, tephrochronology and a paleo-environmental characterization. The results give a date for the first main reflector that is younger than the one assessed by previous studies.

Neste trabalho apresenta-se um modelo numérico para a análise de problemas tridimensionais envolvendo a interação mecânica estaca-solo, acoplando-se o Método dos Elementos de Contorno (MEC) ao Método dos Elementos Finitos (MEF). O solo é modelado com o MEC utilizando-se as soluções fundamentais de Mindlin, assumindo um meio semi-infinito, homogêneo, isotrópico e elástico-linear. As estacas, modeladas com o MEF, consistem em um elemento único, com quatro nós e 14 parâmetros nodais (três deslocamentos em cada nó e mais duas rotações no topo da estaca). Cada uma das estacas é levada em consideração no MEC como uma linha de carga. Considera-se o escorregamento das estacas em relação ao maciço, empregando modelos de aderência para a definição da evolução das tensões tangenciais ao longo do comprimento das estacas. São empregados, como funções de forma, polinômios do quarto grau para os deslocamentos horizontais, cúbicos para os deslocamentos verticais e tensões horizontais ao longo do fuste e quadráticos para as tensões verticais do fuste e escorregamento. A reação da ponta da estaca é calculada assumindo tensão constante na base. / This work presents a method for tri-dimensional pile-soil interaction problems, by coupling the Boundary Element Method (BEM) to the Finite Element Method (FEM). The soil is modeled with BEM, using the Mindlins fundamental solutions, supposing a semi-infinite, homogeneous, isotropic, elastic and linear space. Piles are modeled with FEM and are represented by one element with four nodes and 14 nodal parameters (three displacements in each node and two rotations at the top node). Each pile is represented in BEM as a line load. The pile slip is considered using adherence models to evaluate the evolution of shaft tractions. There are employed fourth grade polynomial shape functions for horizontal displacements, cubic polynomial functions for vertical displacements and horizontal tractions along shaft and quadratic polynomial functions for vertical tractions and slip. Tip reaction is calculated supposing constant traction at the base.

The structure and regional tectonic setting of an exhumed, 9.3-km long, left-lateral strike-slip fault zone eludicates processes of growth, linkage, and termination for strike-slip fault zones in granitic rocks. The Gemini fault zone is composed of three steeply dipping, southwest-striking, noncoplanar segments that nucleated and grew along preexisting joints. The fault zone has a maximum slip of 131 m and is an example of a segmented, hard-linked fault zone in which geometrical complexities of the faults and compositional variations of protolith and host rock resulted in nonuniform slip orientations, complex interactions at fault segments, and an asymmetric slip-distance profile. Regional structural analysis shows that joints and left-lateral fault zones have accommodated slip within a 4.8-km wide, right-lateral monoclinical kink band with vertical fold axes and northwest-striking axial surfaces. Geometric modeling of the kink band indicates that as little as 1.1 km of right-lateral displacement across the kink band may have produced the observed slip on kilometer-scale faults within the kink band.

Field studies in the southwest Salton Trough between Yaqui Ridge and Borrego Mountain show that the West Salton detachment fault was active during the Pliocene and may have initiated during the latest Miocene. At Yaqui Ridge dominantly east-directed extension is recorded by slickenlines on the NW-striking detachment fault, and shows that the fault is actually a low-angle dextral oblique strike-slip fault. Crustal inheritance is responsible for the position of the fault at Yaqui Ridge, which reactivates a late Cretaceous reverse -sense mylonite zone at map scale. Late Miocene to Pliocene basin fill deposits at Borrego Mountain display progressive unconformities, contain detritus shed from the footwall and damage zone of the West Salton detachment fault, record the growth of a large hanging wall anticline, and document the initiation and evolution of the West Salton detachment fault. The Borrego Mountain anticline is a major hanging wall growth fold that trends - N60 °W and has at least 420 m of structural relief. The late Quaternary Sunset conglomerate is - 600 m thick, lies in angular unconformity on Pliocene basin fill, is bound on the SW by the dextral oblique Sunset fault, and coarsens upward and SW toward the fault. It is dominated by plutonic lithologies from nearby areas, contains up to 10% recycled sandstone clasts from Pliocene deposits, and was shed from the SW side of the then-active Sunset fault. Based on lithologic, stratigraphic, compositional similarities, we correlate this conglomerate to part of the - 1. I - 0.6 Ma Ocotillo Formation. The West Salton detachment fault was folded and deactivated at Yaqui Ridge by the dextral oblique San Felipe fault zone starting - 1. l - 1.3 Ma. The Sunset fault is in the middle of a complex left stepover between the San Felipe fault to the NW and the Fish Creek Mountains fault to the SE. Structural analyses and mapping show that syntec tonic conglomerate, the West Salton detachment fault, and footwall crystalline rocks all have similar fold geometries and record similar amounts of NE-SW shortening. The dominant SE-trending population of slip vectors on the Sunset fault is not present on the West Salton detachment fault and suggests limited or no activation of the older detachment fault by the younger fault zone.

En Méditerranée orientale, l’arc de Chypre est une frontière géologique majeure où interagissent les plaques Arabie, Afrique, Eurasie et la microplaque anatolienne. Il constitue la limite Nord du bassin du Levant (croûte continentale amincie étirée) et du bassin d’Hérodote (croûte océanique). L’arc de Chypre est directement lié à la convergence vers le Nord de la plaque Africaine sur la plaque Eurasienne depuis la fin du Crétacé. Dans la région Egéenne, l’indentation de la plaque Arabique sur la partie orientale de la plaque Anatolienne d’une part, et l’effet « roll back » du plan de subduction africain dans la partie occidentale de la plaque Anatolienne d’autre part, ont pour conséquence l’expulsion de l’Anatolie depuis la fin du Miocène à aujourd’hui, ce qui se traduit par un décrochement le long de l’arc de Chypre, se prolongeant sur l’île de Chypre. Plusieurs questions scientifiques concernant le cadre géologique de la région ont été étudiées au cours de ce projet. Comment la déformation est-elle intégrée dans le système de l'Arc de Chypre ? La variation crustale de chaque domaine affecte-t-elle le style de déformation ? Comment cette déformation est-elle enregistrée dans les sédiments de l’île de Chypre ? Comment ces déformations (Onshore / Offshore) peuvent être connectées au contexte géodynamique régional ? Afin de répondre à ces questions scientifiques, des données sismiques de réflexion 2D ont été utilisées, et ont permis d’imager les structures principales et leur évolution spatiale dans les parties Sud et Orientale de Chypre. L'interprétation de ces données conduit à l'identification de neuf unités tectono-sédimentaires dans trois différents domaines de la croûte crustale au sud du système de l'Arc chypriote: (1) le bassin du Levant (croûte continentale amincie), (2) le micro-continent d'Eratosthène (croûte continentale) et (3) le bassin d'Hérodote (croûte océanique). Dans ces domaines, de nombreuses structures tectoniques ont été documentées et analysées afin de comprendre le mécanisme et le timing de la déformation. À la limite nord du domaine du bassin du Levant, des accidents majeures chevauchants vers le Sud ont été documentés dans le bassin de Chypre, commençant au début du Miocène et enregistrés par les failles de Larnaca et de Margat. La faille Latakia n’a quant à elle enregistré aucune activité pendant cette période. L'apogée de la déformation s'est produite du Miocène moyen jusqu’à la fin du Miocene, l'activité de la faille de Latakia indiquant la propagation vers le Sud du front de déformation. Cette migration vers le sud a été documentée à partir du développement de bassins flexuraux et des chevauchements stratigraphiques dans le bassin de Chypre. Les pulses tectoniques successifs depuis la fin du Miocène jusqu’à aujourd’hui, sont indiquées par les discordances angulaires et les bassins piggy back. Pendant la période Plio-Pléistocène, l’expulsion vers l'ouest de la microplaque anatolienne a entraîné la réactivation des structures existantes. L'évolution de la déformation le long de la limite de la plaque est identifiée à partir de la création de structures en fleur positives révélant des mouvements transpressifs le long des failles Larnaca et Latakia (domaines orientaux). Le domaine central comprend le mont sous-marin d'Eratosthène qui se caractérise comme une plate-forme carbonatée mésozoïque recouverte d'une mince séquence sédimentaire allant des dépôts Messinien aux dépôts Pléistocène. / The Cyprus Arc system is major plate boundary of the Eastern Mediterranean where different plates interact, namely Arabia, Africa, Eurasia, as well as the Anatolian micro-plate. It constitutes the northern boundary of the Levant Basin (of thin stretched continental crust) and the Herodotus Basin (of oceanic crust). The Cyprus Arc is directly linked with the northward convergence of the African continental plate with respect to the Eurasian continental plate since Late Cretaceous time. The indentation of the Arabian plate and the slab pull effect of the African plate roll back in the Aegean region on the eastern and western part of the Anatolian plate respectively, leads to the westward escape of Anatolia from Late Miocene to Recent, which results in a strike-slip component along the Cyprus Arc system and onshore Cyprus. Several scientific questions with regard to the geological setting of the region were investigated during this project. How is the deformation accommodated at the Cyprus Arc system? Is this deformation style affected by the variation of the crustal nature at each domain? How is this deformation recorded on the sedimentary pile onshore Cyprus? How does the onshore and offshore deformation connect within the geodynamic context of the region? In order to answer these scientific questions, 2D reflection seismic data were utilized, that image the main plate structures and their lateral evolution south and east of Cyprus. Interpretation of these data lead to the identification of nine tectono-sedimentary packages in three different crustal domains south of the Cyprus Arc system: (1) The Levant Basin (attenuated continental crust), (2) The Eratosthenes micro-continent (continental crust) and (3) The Herodotus Basin (oceanic crust). Within these domains, numerous tectonic structures were documented and analysed in order to understand the mechanism and timing of deformation. At the northern boundary of the Levant Basin domain, thrust faults verging towards the south were documented in the Cyprus Basin with the thrust movement commencing in Early Miocene time as indicated by on the Larnaca and Margat Ridges. On the Latakia Ridge no activity was identified during this time interval. The acme of deformation occurred in Middle to Late Miocene time, with the activity of the Latakia Ridge indicating the forward propagation of the deformation front towards the south. This southward migration was documented from the development of flexural basins and from stratigraphic onlaps in the Cyprus Basin. Successive tectonic pulses through the Late Miocene until Recent times, are indicated from the angular unconformities and the piggy back basins. In Plio-Pleistocene time, the westward escape of the Anatolian micro-plate resulted in the reactivation of existing structures. The evolution of deformation along the plate boundary is identified from the creation of positive flower structures revealing transpressive movements along the Larnaca and Latakia Ridges (eastern domains). The central domain includes the Eratosthenes Seamount which is characterized as a Mesozoic carbonate platform covered by a thin sequence of sediments ranging from Miocene-Messinian to Pliocene-Pleistocene depositions.