It is currently believed that the splicing of most pre-mRNAs occurs, at least in part, co-transcriptionally. In order to validate this principle in yeast and establish an experimental system for monitoring spliceosome assembly in vivo, I have employed the chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay to study co-transcriptional splicing events. Here, I use ChIP to examine key questions with respect to the recent proposal that RNA polymerase II (Pol II) recruits pre-mRNA splicing factors to active genes. In my thesis, I address: 1) whether the U1 snRNP, which binds to the 5¡¦ splice site of each intron, is recruited co-transcriptionally in vivo and 2) if so, where along the length of active genes the U1 snRNP is concentrated. U1 snRNP accumulates on downstream positions of genes containing introns but not within promoter regions or along intronless genes. More specifically, accumulation correlated with the presence and position of the intron, indicating that the intron is necessary for co-transcriptional U1 snRNP recruitment and/or retention (Kotovic et al., 2003). In contrast to capping enzymes, which bind directly to Pol II (Komarnitsky et al., 2000; Schroeder et al., 2000), the U1 snRNP is poorly detected in promoter regions, except in genes harboring promoter-proximal introns. Detection of the U1 snRNP is dependent on RNA synthesis and is abolished by intron removal. Microarray data reveals that intron-containing genes are preferentially selected by ChIP with the U1 snRNP furthermore indicating recruitment specificity to introns. Because U1 snRNP levels decrease on downstream regions of intron-containing genes with long second exons, our lab is expanding the study to 3¡¦ splice site factors in hopes to address co-transcriptional splicing. In my thesis, I also focus on questions pertaining to the requirements for recruitment of the U1 snRNP to sites of transcription. To test the proposal that the cap-binding complex (CBC) promotes U1 snRNP recognition of the 5¡¦ splice site (Colot et al., 1996), I use a ?´CBC mutant strain and determine U1 snRNP accumulation by ChIP. Surprisingly, lack of the CBC has no effect on U1 snRNP recruitment. The U1 snRNP component Prp40p has been identified as playing a pivotal role in not only cross-intron bridging (Abovich and Rosbash, 1997), but also as a link between Pol II transcription and splicing factor recruitment (Morris and Greenleaf, 2000). My data shows that Prp40p recruitment mirrors that of other U1 snRNP proteins, in that it is not detected on promoter regions, suggesting that Prp40p does not constitutively bind the phosphorylated C-terminal domain (CTD) of Pol II as previously proposed. This physical link between Pol II transcription and splicing factor recruitment is further tested in Prp40p mutant strains, in which U1 snRNP is detected at normal levels. Therefore, U1 snRNP recruitment to transcription units is not dependent on Prp40p activity. My data indicates that co-transcriptional U1 snRNP recruitment is not dependent on the CBC or Prp40p and that any effects of these players on spliceosome assembly must be reflected in later spliceosome events. My data contrasts the proposed transcription factory model in which Pol II plays a central role in the recruitment of mRNA processing factors to TUs. According to my data, splicing factor recruitment acts differently than capping enzyme and 3¡¦ end processing factor recruitment; U1 snRNP does not accumulate at promoter regions of intron-containing genes or on intronless genes rather, accumulation is based on the synthesis of the intron. These experiments have lead me to propose a kinetic model with respect to the recruitment of splicing factors to active genes. In this model, U1 snRNP accumulation at the 5¡¦ splice site requires a highly dynamic web of protein-protein and protein-RNA interactions to occur, ultimately leading to the recruitment and/or stabilization of the U1 snRNP.

Alternative splicing provides the cell the ability to generate, from a single gene, multiple protein isoforms, sometimes with different or even antagonistic functions. This process is tightly regulated and alterations in the accurate balance of alternatively spliced mRNAs are a common cause of disease. The main objective of this thesis has been to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying disease-causing defective splicing. Skipping of Fas death receptor exon 6 leads to decreased Fas-ligand induced apoptosis. We have studied how this event is promoted by a mutation at the 3’ splice site and by the proto-oncogene SF2, leading to Autoimmune Lymphoproliferative Syndrome and possibly contributing to tumor progression, respectively. Moreover, we have determined the mechanism by which an antitumor drug, Spliceostatin A, alters 3’ splice site recognition and affects alternative splicing. This thesis underscores the importance of pre-mRNA splicing in disease and how the study of disease-causing aberrant splicing can be used as a tool to understand splicing mechanisms and vice versa. / El processament alternatiu del pre-ARNm proporciona a la cèl•lula l’habilitat de generar, a partir d’un únic gen, proteïnes amb funcions diferents i, fins i tot, antagòniques. Aquest procés està altament regulat i desequilibris en l’abundància de les diferent isoformes són causes comunes de malaltia. L’objectiu principal d’aquesta tesi ha estat entendre el mecanisme molecular a través del qual problemes en el processament del pre-ARNm causen malalties. L’exclusió de l’exó 6 del receptor de mort cel•lular Fas condueix a una disminució de l’apoptosi en resposta al lligand de Fas. Hem estudiat com una mutació al lloc de processament 3’ d’aquest exó i el proto-oncogén SF2 promouen aquest patró, causant el síndrome autoimmune lifoproliferatiu i possiblement contribuint a la progressió tumorogènica, respectivament. A més, hem estudiat el mecanisme pel qual la droga antitumoral Spliceostatin A altera el reconeixement del lloc de processament 3’ i causa canvis en el processament alternatiu de diversos gens. Aquesta tesi posa en evidència la importancia del processament del pre-ARNm en malalties i com l’estudi de mutacions que alteren aquest procés i són causa de malaties pot ser utilitzat con una eina per entendre el mecanisme d’aquest processament i viceversa.

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) and Mixed Connective Tissue Disease (MCTD) are chronic, autoimmune disorders that target overlapping autoantigens and exhibit similar clinical manifestations. Despite 40 years of research, a reliable biomarker capable of diagnosing these syndromes has yet to be identified. Previous studies have confirmed that components of the U1 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein complex (U1 snRNP) such as U1A are 1000 fold more autoantigenic than any other nuclear component in SLE patients. Based on these findings, I hypothesize that models derived from the U1 snRNP autoantigenic properties could distinguish SLE from MCTD patients. To test this hypothesis, 30 peptides corresponding to protein regions of the U1 snRNP were tested in triplicates by indirect ELISA in sera from SLE or MCTD subjects. In addition laboratory tests and clinical manifestations data from these patients were included and analyzed in this investigation. Statistical classification methods as well as bioinformatics pattern recognition strategy were employed to determine which combination, if any, of all the variables included in this study provide the best segregation power for SLE and MCTD. The results confirmed that the IgM reactivity for U1 snRNP and U1A have the power to significantly distinguish SLE from MTCD patients as well as identify kidney and lung malfunctions for these subjects (p ≤ 0.05). Furthermore, the data analysis revealed eight novel classification rules for the segregation of SLE and MCTD which are a better classification tool than any of the currently available methods (p ≤ 0.05). Consequently, the results derived from this study support that SLE and MCTD are indeed separate disorders and pioneer the description of eight novel classification criteria capable of significantly discerning between SLE and MCTD patients (p ≤ 0.05).

Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) is a neurodegenerative, inherited disease caused by an insufficient amount of functional Survival of Motor Neurone protein (SMN), though the exact mechanism underlying this is not fully understood. The primary function of SMN is assembling a ring of Sm proteins around small nuclear RNA (snRNA) in an early, cytoplasmic stage of small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP) biogenesis, a process essential in eukaryotes. SMN, together with several mRNA binding proteins, has been linked to neural transport of mRNA towards areas of growth in Motor neurons for local translation of transcripts. Previous research in our group has found that this may involve Coatomer protein-containing vesicles transported by Dynein and requiring the Sm family protein, SmB, for maintenance. Little is known, however, about what other proteins are also present and required for correct transport and localisation of these vesicles. To further investigate this, we have produced plasmids expressing each Sm protein tagged to fluorescent proteins to help track their behaviour, in some cases for the first time, and developed a detergent-free fractionation protocol to enrich for SMN containing vesicles, providing tools that can be used to further probe behaviour and interactions in the future. Using these approaches, SmN, a neural specific Sm protein, was identified to also be present in SMN-containing vesicles similarly to SmB. Analysis of the interactomes of different Sm proteins identified a novel interactor of SMN, Neurochondrin (NCDN), that appears to be required for the correct localisation of SMN in neural cells. NCDN was found to not associate with snRNPs, indicating an snRNP-independent interaction with SMN. NCDN and SMN both independently associated and co-enriched with Rab5, indicating a potential endocytic and cell polarity role for the interaction. This interaction has the potential to be key in SMA pathology and may have therapeutic potential.

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Les recherches présentées dans ce mémoire ont porté sur l'expression des gènes d'histones de type réplication-dépendants. Ces gènes sont particuliers car leurs ARNm sont dépourvus d'introns et de queue poly A en 3', l'extrémité 3' étant générée par coupure endonucléolytique au cours d'un processus de maturation original impliquant plusieurs protéines et la snRNP U7.<br /> Lors d'une première étude, nous avons étudié l'étape initiale de la réaction de maturation qui consiste en la fixation de la protéine HBP sur une structure de l'ARN pré-messager. À partir de mutants de HBP abolissant la fixation sur l'ARN nous avons sélectionné par la technique du triple hybride dans la levure des suppresseurs intragéniques permettant de restaurer cette fixation. La plupart des mutations isolées se situaient dans les domaines N- et C-terminaux de la protéine, en dehors du domaine central impliqué dans l'interaction avec l'ARN. Cette restauration s'effectuait sans perte de spécificité pour la séquence de fixation à l'ARN, suggérant que les domaines N- et C-terminaux sont impliqués dans le processus de reconnaissance de l'ARN.<br /> Dans un second volet de notre étude portant sur la réaction de maturation de l'extrémité 3' de l'ARNm d'histone, nous avons examiné l'impact structural induit par la protéine HBP lors de sa fixation sur les extrémités 3' non traduites des ARNs pré-messagers des histones H4-12, H1t et H2a-614. En utilisant les techniques de sondage en solution nous avons montré que ces extrémités présentent de fortes structures secondaires qui pourraient empêcher l'accès à la particule snRNP U7. Puis, nous avons montré que la fixation de la protéine HBP engendrait des changements de conformation de l'ARN au niveau de la séquence d'hybridation au snRNA U7. Enfin, nous avons pu montrer que ces changements de conformation étaient associés à une amélioration de l'ancrage du snRNA U7 à l'ARN pré-messager. Cependant, ce mécanisme n'est pas généralisable à l'ensemble des gènes d'histones puisque aucune modification importante n'a pu être détectée à l'extrémité 3' non traduite du gène d'histone H2a-614.<br />Enfin, nous avons étudié la traduction in vitro de l'ARNm H4-12 et montré qu'elle s'effectuait de façon très efficace en l'absence des régions 5' et 3' non codantes, suggérant que l'initiation de la traduction s'effectuerait par recrutement des ribosomes à l'intérieur de la phase codante. Par sondage en solution de l'ARNm entier, nous avons proposé un modèle de repliement secondaire dans lequel la séquence codante est circularisée par l'hybridation de ses extrémités. À l'aide d'ARNs anti-sens nous avons identifié un certain nombre de nucléotides essentiels pour le maintien d'une haute efficacité de traduction. L'ensemble des résultats obtenus lors des expériences de sondage en solution associés à ceux issus des études de traduction in vitro, de « toe print » et de microscopie électronique, ont conduit à l'établissement d'un modèle original permettant d'expliquer la traduction atypique de l'ARNm H4-12. La phase codante recruterait directement deux ribosomes à la manière de 2 sites d'entrée interne du ribosome ou « IRES ». Le premier ribosome serait recruté au niveau du codon d'initiation, le second près de la fin de la phase codante. Par le jeu de changements de conformation et grâce à la circularisation de l'ARNm, le deuxième ribosome pourrait être dirigé très efficacement sur le codon d'initiation. Cet enchaînement des deux ribosomes sur la phase codante permettrait d'expliquer d'une part, la grande efficacité de traduction observée dans le cas de notre modèle H4-12 et d'autre part, le rôle accessoire des séquences non traduites.

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