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Epigenetic deregulation contributes significantly to the development of multiple human diseases, including cancer. While great effort has been made to elucidate the underlying mechanism, our knowledge on epigenetic regulation is still fragmentary, an important gap being how the diverse epigenetic events coordinate to control gene transcription. In the first part of our study, we demonstrated an important link between Snail-mediated transcriptional control and epigenetic regulation during cancer development. Specifically, we found that the highly conserved SNAG domain of Snail sequentially and structurally mimics the N-terminal tail of histone H3, thereby functions as a molecular “hook”, or pseudo substrate, for recruiting histone lysine specific demethylase 1 (LSD1) repressor complex to the E-cadherin promoter. Furthermore, we showed that Snail and LSD1 are both required for E-cadherin repression and EMT induction, and their expression is highly correlated with each other in multiple human tumor tissues. Our findings have important clinical ramifications in that compounds mimicking the SNAG domain may disrupt Snail-LSD1 interaction and inhibit EMT and metastasis. In the second part of our study, we designed a batch of compounds based on the structure of the SNAG domain and are currently screening for candidates capable of competing with SNAG peptide for LSD1 binding. In addition, we applied a peptide pulldown/mass spectrometry-coupled analysis to identify SNAG-interacting proteins, among which are many chromatin enzymes and modulators. Functional characterization of these proteins will help to elucidate the Snail-mediated epigenetic regulation process. In the third part of our study, we found that Snail interacts with poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) through a potential pADPr-binding motif and is subject to poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation, which can stabilize the Snail-LSD1 complex for enhanced PTEN suppression under DNA damage condition. Our findings added another layer to the delicate Snail transcriptional machinery, and indicated that PARP inhibitors may be applied in combination with conventional chemotherapies to target cancers with high expression of Snail and LSD1. In summary, we demonstrated that Snail cooperates with multiple epigenetic machineries to induce EMT as well as survival of tumor cells. Our findings contribute to a better appreciation of Snail-mediated epigenetic network as well as diversification of therapeutic strategies against cancer.

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Snail és un factor de transcripció del tipus dit de zinc essencial en la transició epiteli mesènquima (EMT), on la seva funció més ben caracteritzada és com a repressor de l'expressió de l'E-Cadherina. Aquesta tesi doctoral es centrà en l'estudi funcional d'Snail en aquelles línies cel·lulars on hi havia una coexpressió de totes dues proteïnes.En aquest treball es descriu com l'activitat transcripcional d'Snail és regulada per la fosforilació d'un domini ric en serines adjacent a una seqüència d'export nuclear. Aquesta fosforilació, regulada per les unions a la matriu extracel·lular, permet un canvi conformacional d'Snail que afavoreix el seu export nuclear i en conseqüència la pèrdua de la seva capacitat transcripcional. A més a més es mostra com Snail pot ser fosforilat in vitro per les quinases CK2 i GSK3?, on la fosforilació de la primera afavoreix la de la segona. D'altra banda es descriu com Snail pot ser degradat al nucli pel sistema del proteasoma, la regió responsable d'aquesta i com Akt és capaç de promoure-la. A més a més es mostra com Snail pot ser fosforilat in vitro per les quinases CK2 i GSK3?, on la fosforilació de la primera afavoreix la de la segona. D'altra banda es descriu com Snail pot ser degradat al nucli pel sistema del proteasoma, la regió responsable d'aquesta i com Akt és capaç de promoure-la. / Snail is a zinc finger transcription factor essential during the epithelyal-mesenchymal transition (EMT), where it acts as an E-Cadherin repressor, its best characterized function. This doctoral thesis is focused on the functional study of Snail on those cell lines co-expressing Snail and E-cadherin.In this work we describe how the transcriptional activity of Snail is regulated by phosphorylation on a serine rich domain adjacent to a nuclear export sequence (NES). This phosphorylation, regulated by the extracellular matrix unions, causes a conformational change of Snail, that allows its nuclear export and, in consequence, inhibits its transcriptional activity. Snail is phosphorylated in vitro by two kinases, CK2 and GSK3?.It is also shown how Snail can be degraded in the nucleus by the proteasome system, which region is implicated and how Akt can stimulate it.

Els carcinomes són tumors d'origen epitelial que constitueixen aproximadament el 90% dels tumors humans. La progressió tumoral implica diferents etapes: creixement del tumor primari, invasió local, intravasació, extravasació i proliferació de les cèl·lules tumorals en un nou òrgan on formen un tumor secundari o metàstasi. Són, precisament, les metàstasis la principal causa de mort dels malalts de càncer.La invasió local dels carcinomes requereix la pèrdua de l'expressió o de la funció de la molècula d'adhesió cadherina E, la qual és un supressor d'invasió. A més, el procés d'invasió també va acompanyat de la pèrdua d'altres marcadors epitelials, de l'adquisició de marcadors mesenquimals i de l'augment de les propietats migratòries i invasives. Aquests canvis tenen un gran paral·lelisme amb la conversió fenotípica que té lloc durant el desenvolupament embrionari i que s'anomena transició epiteli-mesènquima (TEM). El principal mecanisme que regula el silenciament de la cadherina E és la repressió transcripcional, i recentment s'han caracteritzat diversos factors de transcripció que a través de la seva interacció amb les caixes E (de seqüència CANNTG) del promotor de la cadherina E reprimeixen la seva expressió: Snail, Slug, E47, Twist, ZEB-1 i ZEB-2. L'expressió estable de Snail o E47 en les cèl·lules epitelials Madin Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) indueix un procés de TEM complet, però no es coneix el mecanisme. Moltes de les alteracions que es donen en la TEM poden ser explicades com a conseqüència de la repressió de la cadherina E, però altres events cel·lulars, independents de la dissociació cel·lular, contribuirien també a la iniciació i completació del procés. Per aquest motiu, en aquesta Tesi s'ha realitzat l'anàlisi de l'expressió gènica diferencial mitjançant RAP-PCR i microarrays de cDNA per identificar gens implicats en el procés de TEM induït per Snail o E47. Així, s'han trobat gens que codifiquen per proteïnes relacionades amb diverses funcions cel·lulars com cicle cel·lular, apoptosi, metabolisme o senyalització, però el grup majoritari és el de gens implicats en migració i invasió (adhesió cel·lular, citoesquelet, matriu extracel·lular -MEC- i proteases de MEC). Aquest estudi mostra a més que l'expressió estable de Snail o E47 en les cèl·lules MDCK indueix programes genètics en part comuns i en part específics, suggerint el paper diferencial d'aquests dos factors de transcripció en la progressió tumoral. Per altra banda, s'ha estudiat el mecanisme que regula la sobreexpressió de la metal·loproteasa MMP-9 i del factor de transcripció Id-1 que es dóna en la TEM induïda tant per Snail com per E47. L'activació transcripcional de MMP-9 és induïda per Snail i E47 de forma indirecta i mediada per altres factors de transcripció tals com Ets-1 i Sp1 que s'uneixen a la regió proximal del promotor formant un multicomplexe, i NFkB/p65 que interacciona amb una regió més distal. En canvi, l'activació transcripcional d'Id-1 és regulada principalment a través de la segona caixa E del promotor humà que interacciona amb E47. Pel que fa a Snail, no hem pogut confirmar si s'uneix directament a aquest element o indueix l'expressió d'un altre factor de transcripció capaç d'unir-s'hi. També és important la caixa GC adjacent a la caixa E que recluta Sp1. Tant l'activació de MMP-9 com d'Id-1 és regulada per la via Erk/MAPK (activada per Snail i E47) que fosforila almenys Sp1. Aquests resultats juntament amb l'expressió coneguda de Snail i E47 en línies cel·lulars de carcinoma podrien explicar la sobreexpressió de MMP-9 i Id-1 en molts tumors. / Carcinomas are tumors of epithelial origin that comprise approximately 90% of human tumors. Tumor progression is a multistep process: growth of primary tumor, local invasion, intravasation, extravasation and proliferation of malignant cells in a new organ where they form a secondary tumor or metastasis. Metastasis are the main cause of death of cancer patients.Local invasion of carcinomas requires loss of E-cadherin expression or function, which is an adhesion molecule and a well established invasion supressor. In addition, invasion process is accompanied by loss of other epithelial molecules, acquisition of mesenquimal markers and gain of migratory and invasive properties. These changes have many parallels with the phenotypic conversion that takes place during embryonic development known as epithelial-mesenquimal transition (EMT). The main mechanism that regulates E-cahderin silence is transcripcional repression, and recently several transcription factors have been characterized as E-cadherin repressors through their interaction with the E-boxes (of sequence CANNTG) of the promoter: Snail, Slug, E47, Twist, ZEB-1 and ZEB-2.Stable expression of Snail or E47 in Madin Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) epithelial cells induce a complete EMT, but the mechanism that govern it is not known yet. Some of the alterations that occur during EMT can be explained as a consequence of E-cadherin repression, but other cellular events, independent from cellular dissociation, may contribute to the initiation and completion of the process. For this reason, in this Thesis we made a differential expression analysis by RAP-PCR and cDNA microarrays to identify genes implicated in Snail and E47 induced EMT. Thus we found genes related to different cellular functions such as cellular cycle, apoptosis, metabolism and signaling, but the great group was composed by genes implicated in migration and invasion (cellular adhesion, cytoskeleton, extracellular matrix -EMC- and EMC proteases). This study shows that Snail or E47 expression in MDCK cells induce common and specific genetic programs, suggesting a differential role for these transcription factors in tumor progression.On the other hand, we studied the mechanism that regulates metalloprotease MMP-9 and transcription factor Id-1 upregulation in Snail and E47 induced EMT. Snail and E47 induced activation of MMP-9 is indirect and mediated by other transcription factors such as Ets-1 and Sp1 that bind to the proximal region of promoter forming a multicomplex, and NFkB/p65 that interacts with a more distal region. On the contrary, Id-1 transcriptional activation is regulated mainly through the second E-box of human promoter that recruits E47. At the moment, we have not been able to confirm whether Snail binds directly to this element or it induces the expression of another factor that interacts with the E-box. It is also important the GC-box adjacent to this E-box that binds Sp1. Either MMP-9 or Id-1 activation are regulated by Erk/MAPK pathway(activated by Snail and E47) that phosphorilates at least Sp1. These results together with known expression of Snail and E47 in carcinoma cell lines may explain MMP-9 and Id-1 upregulation in tumors.

Durant la transició Epiteli-Mesènquima (TEM), el factor de transcripció Snail reprimeix la transcripció de l'E-cadherina unint-se a les caixes E presents en el promotor d'aquest gen.Les cèl·lules que expressen Snail presenten un fenotip fibroblastoide amb pocs contactes cel·lulars: els gens epitelials són reprimits (E-cadherina, MUC1 i VDR) i els gens mesenquimals són induïts (Zeb1).La sobre-expressió de Snail en varies línies cel·lulars donarà lloc a un augment en els nivells de RNA i de l'activitat del promotor de Zeb1. A més, Zeb1 reprimeix l'E-cadherina i MUC1.Estàvem interessats en el mecanisme de repressió i inducció de gens per Snail. Snail necessita de HDAC per a realitzar el seu mecanisme de repressió. A més, es va estudiar el mecanisme de inducció del promotor de Zeb1. El promotor de Zeb1 era activat en línies cel·lulars que responien a estímuls de TEM, com la sobre-expressió de ILK, de l' oncogen Ha-Ras o de la cPK-Ca. Finalment es va descriure que el promotor de Zeb1 responia a NF-kB, b-catenina/TCF4 i Twist. / During Epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), the transcriptional factor Snail represses E-cadherin transcription by binding to E-box sequence of the E-cadherin promoter. Cells expressing Snail presented a scattered flattened phenotype with low intercellular contacts: epithelial gene are repressed (E-cadherin, VDR and Muc-1) and mesenchymal genes are induced (Zeb1). Snail overexpression in several lines raised ZEB1 RNA levels and increased the activity of ZEB1 promoter. ZEB1 repressed E-cadherin and MUC1.We were interested in Snail repression and induction mechanism. We analysed whether Snail needs other proteins for its repression function and we found HDAC such as partners in Snail repression. In addition, we are studying its activation activity upon Zeb1 promoter. The human Zeb1 promoter was activated in cell lines that respond to agents that induce mesenchymal phenotype, as overexpression of integrin-linked kinase (ILK) or oncogenes such as Ha-ras or cPK-Ca. Moreover, Zeb1 promoter was activated by different proteins implicated in EMT, such as, NF-kB, b-catenin/TCF4 and Twist.

A significant goal in studies on learning and memory is to relate cellular plasticity to the modification of behaviour. The phenomenon of dual-process learning affords an ideal opportunity to explore the complexities inherent in establishing this relationship. Dual-process learning occurs when depression (habituation) and facilitation (sensitization) are expressed simultaneously within a neural network and compete to determine the behavioural outcome. A large body of literature is reviewed to define characteristics which are common across the neural networks that exhibit dual-process learning: depression occurs at loci early in the reflex pathway, upstream of the modulatory system necessary for the induction of facilitation. Consequently, depression not only competes directly with facilitation for the determination, of behavioural change (by serial and/or parallel expression), but depression also precludes the ongoing development and maintenance of sensitization (by serial induction). A mathematical model is presented to formally describe the nature of this competition and how this competition leads to the kinetics of dual-process learning. The tentacle withdrawal reflex of the snag Helix aspersa exhibits dual-process learning and was further investigated in this study. The neural circuit mediating tentacle withdrawal is described along with the nature and the location of plasticity which occurs within that circuit. In turn, plasticity at the cellular level is related, via the network level, to plasticity at the behavioural level. The data demonstrate the importance of localizing the sites of plasticity within a neural network in order to explain (1) how plasticity at a particular locus influences plasticity occurring elsewhere in the network and (2) how plasticity at different loci affect different aspects of behaviour.