Die Arbeit untersucht die parlamentarische Diskussion im Deutschen Reichstag um die (Bismarckschen) Sozialversicherungsgesetze 1881-1889 hinsichtlich ihrer Beeinflussung durch christlich-religiös motivierte Standpunkte. Sie weist nach, dass die Prägekräfte religiöser Überzeugungen und Argumentationsmuster nicht nur auf einer kirchlichen oder theologischen Ebene wirksam sind, sondern beispielsweise mit der Sozialversicherung bis in die unmittelbare Gegenwart wirksam sind. Die Arbeit enthält einen umfassenden Überblick über die sozialreformatorische Diskussion des 19. Jahrhunderts sowie über die sozialpolitischen Maßnahmen bis zur Einführung der Sozialversicherung.

UNIVERZITA KARLOVA V PRAZE FAKULTA SOCIÁLNÍCH VĚD Institut sociologických studií Katedra veřejné a sociální politiky Soňa Zubrová Analysis of the health insurance system in the Czech Republic after year 1989 Abstrakt Praha 2011 Abstrakt The system of the Czech Republic health insurance stands for one of the pillars of the social security in the Czech Republic. Within last twenty years is has been changed significantly several times. The changes have been intended to contribute mainly to the reduction in the number of exploited sickness leaves, to the strengthening of responsibility of employees, employers and physicians. After 1989 the system faced many legal modifications. This thesis is focused on analysis of the health insurance system in the Czech Republic after year 1989. The theoretical resources of the thesis are human and social rights, social security and its principles. The main segment of the theoretical part of the thesis is a function of the right for social security and a description of health insurance. The exploratory part of the thesis analyses the chosen occurrences relating to the health insurance system problems and thereby it responds to questions asked in the introduction of the thesis. The research has proved a diminishing percentage of sickness leaves in connection with accepted...

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Thesis (LLM. (Labour Law)) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / This study discusses the legal analysis of social security rights of domestic workers in the South African social security law. The notion social security is concerned with the protection of individuals during the happening of certain event such as unemployment, maternity, disability, old age, sickness, and death. For the purpose of this study, social insurance schemes which arise from the employment relationship will be explored. It is submitted that domestic workers like any other employees should also be afforded social security protection as envisaged in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (the Constitution). Therefore, domestic workers must also be provided social security rights arising out of their employment. Thus, the research process will involve thorough analysis of statutes, case law, textbooks and scholarly articles dealing with the social security law protection afforded to domestic workers, in particular the social insurance component of social security. For an exceptionally long time, domestic workers have been excluded from the formal employment sector, which followed that they were automatically excluded from social security protection. Despite section 9 of the Constitution, this espouses non-discrimination and equal treatment of all the workers in South Africa. To this end, there is no comprehensive social security system in South Africa that is capable of providing adequate social protection to domestic workers. For example, most domestic workers have no pension fund, and some are not registered with Unemployment Insurance fund and Compensation for Injuries and Diseases schemes.

With the dawn of democracy, the South African social security system was in dire need of change. The right of access to social security was for the first time entrenched as a fundamental right in the 1995 Constitution. Since then, many changes have been effected to the present formal social security system, but these were mostly ad hoc and lacked a comprehensive approach. The past history of the country led to the exclusion of the majority of the population from formal social security protection. The excluded and marginalised had to rely on informal social security measures to provide social protection. This resulted in a system of co-existence between formal and informal social security. Although informal social security is increasingly recognised as part of the social security landscape, the role and importance of informal social security have largely been ignored in all reforms to improve the protective scope of the present social security system. The thesis aims to change this. Informal social security has been denied a rightful place in the South African social security landscape. The thesis recommends a model as to how the divide between formal and informal social security can be bridged. This model will, it is hoped, serve as a baseline for stimulating debate and generating new innovative ideas as to how to improve the present social security system in South Africa. / Jurisprudence / LLD

本文旨在探討當前中國大陸城鎮職工與農民工等具有勞工性質的群體，其退休養老保險制度發展過程的政治經濟分析。所要回答的問題有三：一、中國大陸退休養老保險的歷史進程為何？有何特徵？二、中國大陸農民工與城鎮職工的退休養老保險制度現今運行情況為何？可能的整合方向是？三、中國大陸退休養老保險基金的財務當前運行情況是？有何隱憂？以上三點構成了本文的問題意識。 文中檢視中國大陸自1950年代所出臺的《中華人民共和國勞動保險條例》至今所有關於農民工與城鎮職工養老保險法規的演變，並比較2011年《社會保險法》出臺後，關於農民工與城鎮職工養老保險的實質發展。此外，本文以北京、上海、廣東、河南各省的「退休養老保險金的收支結餘」做為基礎，使用各省的「歷史債務」、「經濟發展水準」、「勞動力流動」等面向分析養老金區域失衡的原因與長期發展的隱憂，以歸納出當前中國大陸城鎮職工與農民工養老保險制度發展的個案省份分析。 本文發現，中國大陸農民工與城鎮職工養老保險的發展有著明顯的「路徑依賴」特徵，自《中華人民共和國勞動保險條例》出臺以降，關於中國大陸的社會保障歷經了單位保障到社會保險，最後則是具備中國特色的「社會統籌與個人帳戶相結合」制度的建立。關於中國大陸退休養老體制的改革過程是中國社會主義傳統下與改革開放後強調經濟發展相互激盪下的結果。 中共以戶籍制度作為區分城鄉勞工的主要手段，在社會福利制度上形成了差異化的現象。本文認為關於農民工的社會保障制度在過去的社會保險體系發展中乏善可陳，與受到政府保障的城鎮職工形成對比的現象。中共當局開始正視農民工的問題是在改革開放後所形成的龐大民工潮問題，隨著時間的推移，政府也必須替「第二代農民工」建設更公平的社會保障制度進而達成「城鎮化」的目標。 中國大陸的社會保障制度發展有著明顯的地域差異，其財政的制度也高度分權，具體反應在社會保障制度的改革上。北京、廣東與上海享受著改革開放以來的經濟成果，在吸引外來勞動人口上有著先天優勢，相對河南的人口外移有著明顯的對比。背後的意涵代表了富裕省份對於後發省份在社會保障資源上的「榨取」，不利於後發省份養老保險的長期發展。本文認為，2011年《社會保險法》出臺後，對於農民工的社會保障確實有所提昇，也使具有「穩定就業」身分的農民工納入到了城鎮職工養老保險體制內，不過仍然需要觀察其後具體的發展態勢。中國大陸之後的退休養老制度發展，本文認為應該要向實現「全國統籌」的目標邁進，也可以藉由中央分配養老金，使地區養老金收支不均的現象可以有效紓緩。 / This thesis aims to explore the characteristics of labor groups in China, which include urban workers and migrant workers. It also discusses the political economical analysis in the course of development for retirement pensions. There are three important questions that have to be addressed: First, what is the historical course on the Chinese retirement pension? What are the features? Second, how is the retirement pension run for urban workers and migrant workers today? What is the direction for integration? Third, what is the financial situation in running the pensions? Are there any concerns? Above three questions constitute the main issues that will be discussed in this thesis. It is evident that there are changes to today’s law and regulations of endowment insurance for urban and migrant workers. This thesis will use Beijing, Shanghai, Guangdong, and Henan province for “Balance of Revenues and Expenditure in Endowment Pension Insurance” as a basis. Also use each province’s “Debt records”, “Standard Economic Growth” “Labor Mobility”, etc. to analyze. In this thesis it also indicates the development of the endowment insurance for migrant workers and urban workers appears to be having a “path dependency” feature. China’s social security has gone from a unit security to a social security. The social welfare system creates a phenomenon of discrepancy in the system. This thesis deems that in the past, migrant workers’ social security reform development is not effective compared to the government security the urban workers received. The government must help “Second generation migrant workers” create a fair social security system and reach “urbanization” as a goal. China’s social security growth has a noticeable regional difference; there is also a high separation of powers in the finance system, which reacts on the reform for social security. Beijing, Guangdong, Shanghai enjoy the economic gain after the reform, and attract many foreign labors, gives them dominant advantage. In contrast, Henan, there is big difference in number for migrate workers. Behind this, there is an implication that prosperous provinces create an “extortion” of resources to those less prosperous, meaning there is no care for their endowment insurance growth. Overall this system still has potential for improvement.

民法第一零三零條之一剩餘財產分配請求權之規定，「婚後財產」的界定上應否包含未到期未取得之退休金期待權，此一難題，涉及離婚配偶，尤其未就業或中斷就業的家庭主婦的老年安全保障需求，而開啟本文之討論。 離婚配偶的憲法基本權利應為吾人重視，尤其平等權、財產權和家庭權之保障。而社會保險具財產價值之權利如年金、退休金具有憲法第十五條財產之地位，即便為未到期未領取之期待權，其財產權之性質不受影響，應與私法財產等同視之而納入剩餘財產分配範圍。然而在親屬法、社會法交錯適用下，離婚配偶的老年安全為法制面之闕漏，實務則囿於法條文義解釋，逕將年金、退休金排除於剩餘財產分配範圍外，此種解釋適用方式不僅不適當，並有違憲之虞。 離婚配偶老年安全匱乏的問題，涉及親屬法和社會法的整合，應兼顧離婚時的現時性和離婚後的未來性。內化的親屬法法制當能發揮暫時填補離婚後扶養的缺漏，在私經濟層面提供離婚配偶一定的財產基礎，但長期性的社會風險，仍應回歸外化的社會法法制，以年金給付因應之。就此，世界各國多採取「年金分割」方式，使未就業的家庭主婦獲得自己名義下獨立的年金權利，作為老年安全的基石。 因而本文以最早施行年金分割的德國法制為觀察主軸，尤其二零零九年進行大規模修法後，由民法中獨立出來，整合成為一部共五十四條的專法；在利益分配權利人的考量下，俾使分配結果更符合正義，以調和離婚雙方照護上平衡之方式，達成立法者促進雙方實質平等之目的，而深值我國參照。故本文主要概括介紹德國新法內涵，其後比較觀察美國和瑞士不同的立法模式，並總結歸納外國法制對台灣未來法制發展之啟示。

面對國人的人口老化及老年人慢性疾病逐年升高趨勢，隨著國人生活水準改善，醫療技術提升，平均餘命亦逐年提高；尤其，近年來國人平均餘命上升幅度較往年更為快速，加上少子化現象，對於衍生之老人照護問題，值得政府及民間各界重視。政府近年來大力推動長期照護政策，2007年推動「我國長期照顧十年計畫」，2009年底將「長期照護保險法」草案送立法院審議，預定2011年後實施長期照護保險制度。給付型態以實物給付（服務提供）為主，現金給付為輔，給付水準區分四級，且有補助時數限制。草案中引進「部分負擔」作法，超過政府補助時數，將由民眾全部自行負擔照護費用，可見被照護者或家屬所須負擔之照護費用及精神壓力，仍是一項沈重的負擔。 依據經建會委託長期照護服務需求評估報告及我國長期照護資源供給調查報告，顯示未來長期照護服務需求與照護資源供給相差甚遠。綜觀各國政府所提供之長期照護保障，以基本保障及服務為原則，若要達到讓身心功能障礙者，能夠增進獨立生活能力，提升生活品質，以維持尊嚴與自主之目的，當然，須要靠商業長期看護保險的補充，才能架構完整的長期照護保障網絡。 觀察國內在1995年全民健保制度實施後，明顯激發了民眾對於商業保險之健康醫療保險商品需求的重視與認同。以全民健保制度開辦當年(即1995年)至2004年，此十年間的商業健康保險保費收入來看，十年之間健康險保費收入成長超過七倍。顯示政府推動全民健保制度後，不但激發民眾潛在需求意識，而且促進商業保險商品多元化快速發展。依照先進國家在長期看護保險商品市場的發展經驗，保險公司除重視其商品架構之開發，針對消費者對於長期看護保險的各種認知問題，也應要求業務人員在銷售過程說明清楚，以擴大潛在商機，及避免日後產生非必要之爭議。 有鑑於此，本研究除了詳細彙整介紹德國、日本及台灣政府長期照護制度現況，並對於美國、日本及台灣長期看護保險商品市場進行深入介紹與探討，且對於美國、英國長期看護保險消費者購買須知進行深入介紹與探討。目的在藉由本研究之介紹與探討之結果，提供台灣保險產業長期看護保險之商品開發、業務推動及編製長期看護保險消費者購買須知等實務運作之重要參考。拋磚引玉，期待保險產業有志之士一起掌握藍海商機，協助消費者購買到適合自己的長期看護保險保單。 / Aging population is a topical issue to today’s society, with improved living standard, advanced medical technology, and rising trend of chronic diseases; causing life expectancy to increase year by year. As a result of faster increase in life expectancy in recent years, together with the phenomenon of low birth rates, long-term care is an issue that should be taken seriously to both the public and the government. Recently, the government has been promoting long-term care policy vigorously, where it published “Taiwan’s 10 Years Long-term Care Program” in 2007, submitted “Long-term Care Insurance Law ” draft to the Legislative Yuan of Republic of China by end of 2009, and is scheduled to implement “Long Term Care Insurance” by 2011. Long-term care benefits provided by the government can be classified into four levels, and the benefits will mainly be service based, with hours limit, supported by cash payments. This means that, any long-term care exceeding government’s limit will have to be paid by the user, which may be a stress and burden, financially and mentally, to the family of those needing long-term care. According to “Long-term Care Service Needs Assessment Report” and “Supply of Long-term Care Resources Survey Report” consigned by the Council for Economic Planning and Development, it can be seen that the supply of long-term care resources can never quite meet the demand of long-term care services. After studying long-term care benefits provided by other governments, it is clear that commercial insurance is essential to allow people requiring long-term care to maintain a full standard of living. This may includes being able to live independently, to improve the quality of life, and to maintain one’s dignity. By observing the National Health Insurance （NHI） in Taiwan, implemented in 1995, it has stimulate people to be aware of their personal needs towards private health insurance products. The premium of private health insurance products had been increased by seven times from 1995 to 2004. It has been proven that government’s strong support on the NHI has help people to better understand the demands on their health protection, and at the same time, diversify private health insurance products. An overview on the experience of developing private long-term care insurance products in developed countries, insurance companies not only focus their core competence on developing insurance products but also pay attention on maintaining customers’ satisfaction, customer loyalty and customer retention. It is essential that insurance sales agents should help clients choose insurance policies that suit their needs by explaining policies in detail, in order to create new business opportunities and prevent from any future claim conflict or argument. In view of this, the purpose of this research is to firstly introduce the long-term care system in countries such as German, Japan and Taiwan, study on the experience of developing private long-term care insurance products in developed countries, and follow by an in-depth study and discussion about U.S. and U.K. shopper’s guide to long-term care insurances. Moreover, the findings of this dissertation can hopefully provide suggestions to insurance companies on development of long-term care insurance products and help building consumers satisfaction and consumer retention. To conclude, it is important to create a win-win solution to both customers and insurance companies, where insurers shall develop long-term care products that satisfy customers’ need and in return profit from the market opportunities.

With the dawn of democracy, the South African social security system was in dire need of change. The right of access to social security was for the first time entrenched as a fundamental right in the 1995 Constitution. Since then, many changes have been effected to the present formal social security system, but these were mostly ad hoc and lacked a comprehensive approach. The past history of the country led to the exclusion of the majority of the population from formal social security protection. The excluded and marginalised had to rely on informal social security measures to provide social protection. This resulted in a system of co-existence between formal and informal social security. Although informal social security is increasingly recognised as part of the social security landscape, the role and importance of informal social security have largely been ignored in all reforms to improve the protective scope of the present social security system. The thesis aims to change this. Informal social security has been denied a rightful place in the South African social security landscape. The thesis recommends a model as to how the divide between formal and informal social security can be bridged. This model will, it is hoped, serve as a baseline for stimulating debate and generating new innovative ideas as to how to improve the present social security system in South Africa. / Jurisprudence / LLD

This thesis deals with the possibilities of taxation of a person who wants to do business as an individual. The main subject of this work was to evaluate situation in terms of tax advantages. The issue of taxation is only one of the criteria. There are other criteria that might affect the decision, for example such as insurance, financing options, There are two options. One of them is a self-employed person who conducts business under the Trade Act. The other options is to do business as a legal entity, through a limited liability company with just one partner. There are no employees in the company.