Este trabalho apresenta o desenvolvimento de um processo para extração simultânea de tório e urânio, pela técnica de extração por solventes, a partir do licor sulfúrico proveniente da lixiviação do minério de monazita realizado pela Industrias Nucleares do Brasil INB, unidade de Caldas MG. Na primeira etapa do estudo, investigou-se as variáveis de processo através de ensaios descontínuos para estabelecimento das melhores condições de operação. Na segunda etapa foram realizados experimentos contínuos de extração do tório e urânio com base nos resultados dos testes descontínuos, objetivando otimizar os parâmetros do sistema. As variáveis de processo investigadas foram: tipo e concentração do agente extratante, tempo de contato entre as fases, tipo e concentração do agente reextratante, relação volumétrica das fases (aquoso/orgânico) nas etapas de extração e reextração. Os extratantes investigados foram: Primene JMT, Primene 81R, Alamine 336 e Aliquat 336. Os melhores resultados foram obtidos com a mistura Primene JM-T/Alamine 336. No processo desenvolvido o tório e o urânio são extraídos simultaneamente, pela mistura Primene JM-T e Alamine 336, diluídos em Exxsol D-100. A reextração foi realizada utilizando-se solução de ácido clorídrico (HCl) 2,0mol/L. O estudo foi conduzido à temperatura ambiente. Depois de selecionadas as melhores condições de processo, foram realizados dois experimentos contínuos contemplando as etapas de extração e reextração. No primeiro experimento utilizou-se a mistura Primene JM-T e Alamine 336 nas concentrações 0,15mol/L e 0,05mol/L, respectivamente. No segundo experimento, a concentração de Alamine 336 foi de 0,15mol/L, enquanto a concentração de Primene JM-T foi mantida a mesma. Em ambos experimentos foram utilizados quatro estágios de extração e cinco estágios de reextração. No primeiro experimento obteve-se um reextrato com 34.3g/L ThO2 e 1,49g/L U3O8. A concentração dos metais no rafinado foi de 0,1g/L ThO2 e 0,05g/L U3O8. No segundo experimento as concentrações dos óxidos de tório e urânio no reextrato foram 29,3g/L e 0,94g/L, respectivamente. No rafinado estes teores foram menores que 0,001g/L, obtidos a partir de uma alimentação com 3,6g/L ThO2 e 0,17g/L U3O8. A recuperação do tório foi superior a 99,9% enquanto a recuperação do urânio foi de 99,4%. / This work describes the study of thorium and uranium recovery from sulfuric liquor generated in chemical monazite treatment by solvent extraction technique. The sulfuric liquor was produced by Industries Nuclear of Brazil INB, Caldas Minas Gerais State. The study was carried out in two steps: in the first the process variable were investigated through discontinuous experiments; in the second, the parameters were optimized by continuous solvent extraction experiments. The influence of the following process variables was investigated: type and concentration of extracting agents, contact time between phases and aqueous/organic volumetric ratio. Extractants used in this study included: Primene JM-T, Primene 81-R, Alamine 336 and Aliquat 336. Thorium and uranium were simultaneously extracted by a mixture of Primene JM-T and Alamine 336, into Exxsol D-100. The stripping was carried out by hydrochloric acid (HCl) 2.0mol/L. The study was carried out at room temperature. After selected the best process conditions, two continuous experiments of extraction and stripping were carried out. In the first experiment a mixture of 0.15mol/L Primene JM-T and 0.05mol/L Alamine 336 were used. The second experiment was carried out using 0.15mol/L Primene JM-T and 0.15mol/L Alamine 336. Four extraction stages and five stripping stages were used in both experiments. The first experiment showed a ThO2 and U3O8 content in loaded strip solution of 34.3g/L and 1.49g/L respectively and 0.10g/L ThO2 and 0.05g/L U3O8 in the raffinate. In the second experiment a loaded strip solution with 29.3g/L ThO2 and 0.94g/L U3O8 was obtained. In this experiment, the metals content in raffinate was less than 0.001g/L, indicating a thorium recovery over 99.9% and uranium recovery of 99.4%.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Um dos principais problemas ambientais ligados as indústrias minerárias é o gerenciamento adequado dos seus resíduos. O armazenamento destes em locais não apropriados à espera de tratamento é uma questão que exige solução. A mina Osamu Utsumi localizada na cidade de Caldas, Minas Gerais, vem enfrentando esse problema. O resíduo desta mina consiste em uma lama alcalina gerada a partir da neutralização do pH da drenagem ácida de mina e é rico em vários metais, dentre os quais encontra-se o urânio. A recuperação do urânio por técnicas hidrometalúrgicas pode ser uma alternativa viável sobre o reaproveitamento desse material. Uma das técnicas mais indicadas para a recuperação do metal desse resíduo é a lixiviação alcalina. O presente trabalho objetivou definir um processo de lixiviação específico para a recuperação do urânio presente na lama e uma forma eficaz de concentrar o metal presente no licor da lixiviação. Estudou-se variáveis como porcentagem de sólidos, tempo, temperatura, seleção dos agentes extratores, concentração dos reagentes e necessidade ou não de se utilizar oxidantes. Os resultados mostram ser possível extrair 100% do urânio presente na lama sendo que as condições experimentais ideais são 10% de sólidos, [Na2CO3] a 0,50 molL-1, [NaHCO3] a 1,00 molL-1, 20 horas de reação à temperatura ambiente. A caracterização química da amostra realizada por espectrometria de raios-X por dispersão em energia (EDX) evidenciou elementos como Ca, S, Mn e Al como majoritários e o teor de U3O8 foi de 0,25%. A identificação das fases cristalinas, feita por técnica de difração de raios-X, mostrou a etringita (Ca6Al2(SO4)3.(OH)12.26H2O) como fase predominante, o gipso (CaSO4.2H2O) como fase maior, a calcita (CaCO3) como menor e a bassanita (CaSO4.0,5H2O) como fase minoritária. A etapa de concentração constou da avaliação das técnicas de precipitação e troca iônica. Para a precipitação utilizou-se solução de hidróxido de sódio a 10 molL-1 até que o pH da polpa chegasse a 12. Precipitou-se 62% do urânio presente no licor e o teor do metal no precipitado foi de 6,5%. A baixa recuperação na precipitação se deve ao excesso de íons carbonato do licor que interferiu tanto na precipitação quanto na troca iônica. Na precipitação o excesso de carbonato dificulta a desestabilização do ânion complexo [UO2(CO3)3]4- e no caso da troca iônica há a competição entre esses ânions e o íon CO32- pelos sítios de adsorção das resinas. Desta forma, para os ensaios de troca iônica, fez-se necessário submeter o licor gerado na lixiviação a ensaios com a finalidade de eliminar o excesso de íons carbonato. Para tal utilizou-se de aquecimento do licor, ou adição de cal para precipitação do carbonato de cálcio ou a diluição do licor com a solução de drenagem ácida de mina. Tais procedimentos visaram à obtenção de um licor com características adequadas para a posterior adsorção do urânio pelas resinas. As resinas testadas foram a DOWEX RPU e IRA 910 U e os carregamentos foram considerados satisfatórios para ambas, sendo esses valores de 65,0 e 60, 0 mg U/g, respectivamente. / Appropriate management of wastes is one of the most important environmental problems, particularly concerning the tailings of mining activities. Interim storage of the tailings at incorrect places pending treatment demands an urgent solution. The Osamu Utsumi Mine located in the city of Caldas, Minas Gerais, has faced such problem. The waste of the mine consists of an alkaline sludge produced during pH neutralization of acid drainage and is rich in several metals, including uranium. The recovery of uranium by a hydrometallurgical technique can be one alternative for the reuse of this material, alkaline leaching is one of the most indicated techniques to attain that purpose. The present work aimed to develop a specific leaching process for the recovery of uranium present in the sludge and to concentrate the metal in the leaching liquor in a effective way. The following parameters were assessed: solid percentages, residence time, temperature, selection of extracting agents, concentration of reagents and evaluating whether or not to apply oxidants. Results show the possibility of extracting 100% of the uranium contained in the sludge. The better conditions to reach the maximum solubilization are: 10% solid content, 0.50 molL-1 Na2CO3, 1.00 molL-1 NaHCO3, and 20 hours reaction time at room temperature. The chemical characterization of the sample by energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDX) indicated Ca, S, Mn and Al as the main constituents of the sludge, and 0.25 % of U3O8. The crystallized phases present in the sample, according the X-ray diffraction, are ettringite (Ca6Al2(SO4)3.(OH)12.26H2O) as a predominant phase followed by gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), calcite (CaCO3) and bassanite (CaSO4.0.5H2O) as the minority. The concentration step was composed by evaluate of precipitation technique and ionic exchange. In the precipitation stage, 10.0 moL-1 NaOH solution was added to the pulp to reach a pH of 12. The percentage of uranium precipitated from the liquor was 62% and the concentration of metal contained in the precipitate correspond a 6.5%. The low recovery is due to the excess of carbonate ions in the liquor that influenced in the precipitation and ionic exchange. The excess of carbonate in the precipitate hinders the destabilization of the Na4UO2(CO3)3 soluble complex and in the case of ionic exchange there is a competition between CO32- ion and [UO2(CO3)3]4- anion for the adsorption sites of the resins. Based on this fact it was necessary to submit the solution generated in the lixiviation stage to three different tests: heating, lime addition and dilution of the liquor with the acid mine drainage to eliminate the excess of carbonate ions. The aim of this procedure is to obtain a product with suitable characteristics to allow subsequent uranium adsorption by the resin. The adsorption capacities of the two resins used - DOWEX RPU and IRA 910 U were around 65.0 and 60.0 mg U/g of resin, respectively. Both adsorption capacities were considered satisfactory.

Este trabalho apresenta o estudo de recuperação de índio (In) e zinco (Zn) presentes em telas de monitores de computadores sucateados, por meio de técnicas hidrometalúrgicas. O trabalho foi subdividido em duas partes distintas: dissolução dos metais In e Zn mediante digestão ácida do pó de revestimento da tela de monitores e separação dos metais pela técnica de extração por solventes. Na etapa de dissolução dos metais, investigou-se a influência das seguintes variáveis de processo: tipo de reagente, relação ácido/amostra, tempo de reação e temperatura. Após a otimização dos parâmetros do processo, obteve-se uma dissolução de índio superior a 95% e de Zn superior a 99,5%. Foi obtido um licor contendo 9,8 g/L de zinco, 1,49 g/L de índio e 102 g/L de sulfato, contendo como impureza 0,016 g/L de ferro, e acidez de 2,2 mol/L (pH = 0,34). Após a definição das melhores condições de abertura química, a amostra foi processada para a obtenção do licor para a realização dos experimentos de extração por solventes. Foram realizados experimentos descontínuos de extração por solventes para a verificação da viabilidade técnica e melhores condições de separação dos metais, e um experimento contínuo para o carregamento do solvente. Na etapa de extração, as variáveis de processo investigadas foram: tipo de extratante, pH do licor e tempo de reação. Os experimentos foram realizados na relação volumétrica aquoso/orgânico (A/O) igual a 1 e concentração de extratante de 1,0 mol/L. Os extratantes investigados foram: DEHPA, IONQUEST 801 e CYANEX 272. O estudo das variáveis foi realizado apenas com os dois primeiros extratantes. Os experimentos de reextração foram realizados com HCl e H2SO4, na relação volumétrica de 1:1 e em diferentes concentrações dos ácidos. Os experimentos de bancada indicaram que a separação dos metais pode ser realizada usando DEHPA 1,0 mol/L como extratante, o H2SO4 1,0 mol/L como agente de lavagem, para a reextração dos elementos coextraídos com o índio (principalmente Zn), e HCl 3,0 mol/L para a reextração do In do orgânico carregado. / This work presents the study of recovery of indium (In) and zinc (Zn) present in computer monitor screens by means of hydrometallurgical techniques. This work was divided into two distinct parts: one is the dissolution of the metals In and Zn through acid digestion of the sample and the separation of the metals through solvent extraction technique. In the acid dissolution, the influence of the following process variables was investigated: type of reagent, acid/sample ratio, time of reaction and temperature. Following the optimisation of the parameters of the process, dissolution of indium above 98% and of Zinc over 99.5% was achieved. A liquor containing 9.8 g/L of zinc, 1.49 g/L of indium and 102 g/L of sulphate having as impurity 0.016 g/L of iron, and acidity of 2.2 mol/L (pH = 0.34) was obtained. After the optimization of the chemical opening conditions, the sample were processed in order to obtain the liquor for the solvent extraction experiments. Batch experiments of solvent extraction aiming at verifying the technical viability and best conditions for the separation of the metals and a continuous experiment to load the solvent were carried out. In the extraction phase, the process variables investigated were: type of extractant, pH of the liquor, and reaction time. The experiments were carried out at an aqueous/organic (A/O) volumetric ratio equal 1:1 and concentration of extractant 1.0 mol/L. The extractants investigated were DEHPA, IONQUEST 801 and CYANEX 272. The study of the variables was carried out with DEHPA and IONQUEST 801. The stripping experiments were carried out with HCl and H2SO4, at a volumetric ratio 1 with different acids concentrations. The batch experiments indicated that the separation of the metals In and Zn can be done using DEHPA 1 mol/L as extractant, H2SO4 1 mol/L as scrubbing agent and HCl 3 mol/L as stripping agent. After defining the best conditions for the extraction, scrubbing and stripping steps a continuous experiment was programmed. The McCabe-Thiele diagrams indicated that 3 extractions stages and 7 stripping stages was enough to extract and strip the In from the liquor and the loaded organic respectively. Due to the small amount of the liquor, the continuous experiment contemplate only the extraction and scrubbing steps. The experiment was done in mixer-settler cells, with capacity of 70 mL in the mixer and 250 mL in the settler, in a counter current system. The stripping step was carried out in batches simulating the counter current system. The continuous experiment (extraction and scrubbing steps) were carried out with the use of DEHPA 1.0 mol/L as the extractant agent and a solution of H2SO4 1.0 mol/L as the scrubbing agent in order to remove the impurities extracted. Four extraction stages and 4 stages were employed in each step, using a volumetric ratio A/O equal 5:1 in the extraction and a volumetric ration O/A equal 4:1 in the scrubbing step. A loaded organic containing 7.5 g/L of In and 0.003 g/L of Zn and a raffinad containing 9.4 g/L Zn and less than 0.001 g/L of In were obtained from a liquor containing 9.8 g/L and 1.49 g/L. The content of the metals in the stripped solution were 26.7 g/L de In e 0.001 g/L de Zn.

Com o transcorrer dos anos a problemática da geração de resíduos sólidos vem ganhando destaque no âmbito ambiental. Atualmente, várias tecnologias na área de tratamento de resíduos sólidos estão sendo estudadas com o objetivo de reduzir o volume de resíduos gerados e obter ganhos econômicos adicionais. As placas de circuito impresso (PCIs) descartadas são classificadas como resíduos sólidos e na sua composição, por vezes, possuem quantidades de metais maiores que as encontradas em minérios. O presente trabalho estudou a separação de metais não ferrosos encontrados em dois tipos de placas de circuito impresso de computadores descartados (placas mãe e placas de vídeo), visando a sua recuperação. O procedimento utilizado incluiu etapas de processamento físico e processamento hidrometalúrgico. O processamento físico foi iniciado com a cominuição das PCIs utilizando moinho de facas e moinho de martelos. Em seguida, foi retirada uma parte do resíduo moído para ser quarteado e encaminhado para os ensaios hidrometalúrgicos. As amostras obtidas após o quarteamento foram denominadas amostras da rota I. Com o restante do material moído foi realizada separação magnética, na qual foram obtidas amostras de material não magnético, denominadas: amostras da rota II, tais amostras seguiram também para tratamento hidrometalúrgico. A seguir foi realizada a caracterização dos materiais presentes nas PCIs e nas suas respectivas amostras (amostras da rota I e amostras da rota II). O processamento hidrometalúrgico foi então iniciado com a etapa de lixiviação. Nesta etapa, parâmetros como tempo, temperatura e concentração do ácido foram avaliados. O licor coletado na lixiviação das amostras da rota II seguiu para fase de extração por solventes (SSX), na qual os metais foram purificados e separados. Nos ensaios de SSX foram empregados os extratantes ácidos Cyanex 272, D2EHPA, TBP e suas misturas. Experimentos variando a relação aquosa/orgânica (A/O), a temperatura e a concentração de extratante foram desenvolvidos. Finalmente foram determinados o número de estágios teóricos de extração para purificar o licor obtido na lixiviação das amostras da rota II. Os resultados mostraram que as placas mãe possuem na sua composição 35,8% de metais; 38,4% de polímeros e 25,9 % de cerâmicos, já as placas de vídeo estudadas possuem 35,8 % de metais, 33 % de polímeros e 31,2 % de cerâmicos. Na etapa de lixiviação foi possível recuperar 100% do cobre contido nas amostras da rota II (fração não magnética da placa de vídeo e da placa mãe). A etapa de extração por solventes permitiu separar o alumínio e o zinco do licor obtido na lixiviação das amostras da rota II (fração não magnética da placa de vídeo e da placa mãe). A extração do alumínio e o zinco empregou 10% v/v D2EHPA, temperatura ambiente, tempo de reação de 10 min e pH igual a 3,5. Além disso, o cobre foi separado usando-se 20% v/v de D2EHPA, temperatura ambiente, tempo de reação de 10 min e pH igual a 3,5. Finalmente foi encontrado que este procedimento permite recuperar 82 % do cobre contido na placa mãe e 60 % do cobre da placa de vídeo. / Over the years, the solid waste generation problem has been gaining strength in an environmental context. Currently, several technologies on the field of waste treatment are been studied aiming to reduce the volume of produced waste and gain additional economic value. Discarded printed circuit boards (PCBs) are classified as solid waste and in it composition, sometimes, they hold greater quantities of metal than ores. The present research studied the separation of non-ferrous metals from two types of printed circuit boards from discarded computers (motherboards and video boards) aiming its recovery. The overall process used physical treatment and hydrometallurgical treatment. The physical processing started with griding the PCBs using a knife mill and a hammer mill. Quartered samples from the grinded material were utilized on the hydrometallurgical process. Samples obtained after quartering were called samples from route l. The remained milled material was magnetically separated generating non-magnetic samples, called: samples from route ll, also followed by hydrometallurgical treatment. After, present materials on the PCBs and its respective samples were characterized (samples from route l and samples from route ll). Leaching those materials was the first step of the hydrometallurgical step. Leaching parameters time, temperature and acid concentration were evaluated. The resulting liquor from leaching samples from route ll followed to the solvent extraction (SSX) phase, in which metals were screened and purified. On the extraction phase there were utilized the acid extractants: Cyanex 272, D2EHPA, TBP and its mixtures. Experiments varying extraction parameters as organic/aqueous (O/A), temperature and extractant concentration were carried out during this phase. Finally, the number of theoretical stages of extraction were determined to purify the liquor obtained by leaching samples from route ll. The results showed that the mother PCBs are constituted by 35.8% of metals; 38.4% of polymers and 25.9% of ceramic, while the video PCBs are composed by 35.8% of metals, 33% polymer and 31.2% of ceramic. In the leaching step was possible to recover 100% of the copper contained in the route II samples (non-magnetic fraction of the video boards and motherboards). The solvent extraction step can separate aluminum and zinc from the liquor produced in leaching process of the Route II samples (non-magnetic fraction of the video board and motherboard). Aluminum and zinc extraction used 10% v/v of D2EHPA, room temperature, reaction time 10 min and pH 3.5. Moreover, copper was removed using 20% v/v of D2EHPA, room temperature, reaction time of 10 min and pH 3.5. Finally it was found that this procedure allows recovering 82% of the copper contained in the motherboard and 60% of the copper video board.

The further usage of vegetable and plant waste from juice pressing industry as textile dyes is presented in this thesis. The thesis is focused on β-carotene (C40H56) dyestuff extracted from orange peel and carrot residue. The three organic solvents; ethyl acetate, petroleum ether and hexane/acetone (1:1 v/v) were used for the extraction. The analysis of the extract was done by RP-HPLC with a C18 column. The yield and the purity of the extracted β-carotene were determined. The highest yield was achieved with petroleum ether whereas the other two solvents were nearly as good. The highest and purest amount on β-carotene was found in the extracts of carrots. The dyeing process was continued with β-carotene dyestuff of orange peel and carrot residue extracted from 27 g of residue on 0,8 g cotton in the dyeing ratio 1:50. Unmordant and post mordanted bleached and mercerized cotton fabric was dyed. 10% alum of the weight fraction of cotton was used as mordant. Colour measurements (K/S, C*, L*, a*, b*, h and ΔE) and fastness properties as light- (ISO-Norm B02) and wash fastness (ISO 105 – C) were tested. Fair light fastness grades were achieved by β-carotene dyestuff of orange peel residue dyed on cotton fabric. Poorer were the grades for β-carotene dyestuff of carrot residue for both unmordanted and mordanted samples. The wash fastness couldn’t achieve reasonable results neither for β-carotene dyestuff from carrots nor orange peel residue, dyed on cotton fabric. / Program: Master programme in Textile Engineering

L’objectif de cette thèse est de modéliser et d’optimiser l’unité de séparation du cobalt et du nickel par extraction liquide-liquide d’un procédé hydrométallurgique. La méthodologie adoptée a consisté dans un premier temps à étudier et modéliser séparément les équilibres d’extraction de chaque métal présent dans la solution industrielle (cobalt, nickel, magnésium, manganèse et zinc), par l’acide phosphinique CYANEX® 272 dilué dans un mélange d’hydrocarbures inertes. Un modèle thermodynamique multi-élémentaire permettant de simuler l’extraction de mélanges des 5 métaux a ensuite été élaboré sur la base des équilibres d’extraction et des constantes apparentes associées ainsi obtenus. Dans un second temps, le modèle multi-élémentaire a été utilisé pour modéliser le procédé continu de séparation du cobalt et du nickel. Ce procédémulti-étagé à contre-courant comporte plusieurs étapes : l’extraction, le lavage, l’élution cobalt et l’élution zinc. Dans le modèle développé, les concentrations en métaux dans les deux phases, les pH dans les différents étages ainsi que la consommation en réactifs, sont calculés à l’aide d’une méthode itérative. Cet outil de simulation du procédé a permis d’identifier des conditions opératoires optimales, pour lesquelles le rendement d’extraction du cobalt de 95% visé est atteint avec une économie en soude tout à fait significative. Les conditions proposées ont ensuite été validées par des campagnes de tests en continu à l’échelle pilote. / This thesis work aims at modelling and optimizing the step of cobalt and nickel separation by solvent extraction, for a hydrometallurgical process. The first stage of the adopted methodology consisted in studying and modelling separately the extraction equilibria of each metal present in the industrial feed solution (cobalt, nickel, magnesium, manganese and zinc) by the phosphinic acid CYANEX® 272 diluted in an inert hydrocarbon mixture. The resulting extraction reactions and their associated equilibrium constants are the basis of a multi-element thermodynamic model that simulates the batch extraction of mixtures of the 5 metals. The next stage of the study consisted in modelling the continuous process of cobalt and nickel separation, based on the multi-element thermodynamic model. This multi-stage process operated counter-currently includes different steps : extraction, scrubbing, cobalt stripping and zinc stripping. In the model developed, the metal concentrations in both phases, the pH in all the stages, and the reagent consumptions are calculated by an iterative method. This simulation tool allowed identifying optimal operational conditions, for which the cobalt extraction yield of 95% is reached with significant caustic soda savings. Then the proposed conditions have been validated through continuous pilot tests.

The work in this thesis aims to develop new systems for the more efficient recovery of metals from aqueous solution using solvent extraction. Understanding the underlying coordination chemistry to improve hydrometallurgical methods is crucial in order to meet the demand for critical metals for use in modern technologies, reduce the environment impact of recovery from primary mining deposits, and recycle valuable metals from secondary sources (e.g. mobile phones, WEEE). Chapter 2 examines the use of a simple primary amide that can load gold and other chloridometalates into a toluene phase through an outer-sphere mechanism. The loading of a variety of metals/metalloids from varying [HCl] is reported, highlighting the selectivity for gold over other metalates and chloride due to a combination of speciation of those metals and the relative ease of extraction of lower charged species (the Hofmeister bias). The advantages in loading/stripping, toxicity and mass balances compared to commercial alternatives are also outlined, in particular the efficacy of separating gold from a mixed-metal solution representative of those found in WEEE. The mode of action of the primary amide (and secondary/tertiary analogues) is determined using slope analysis, Karl-Fischer water determinations, NMR and MS measurements, EXAFS and computational models. The extraction occurs by the dynamic assembly of multiple amide ligands and gold metalates to generate supramolecular clusters held together through hydrogen-bonding and electrostatic interactions. The secondary and tertiary amides are found to be able to extract monoanionic metalates in a similar manner as the primary amide, although clustering occurs to a lesser extent. Whilst the secondary and tertiary amides are stronger gold extractants than the primary amide, they are not observed to be as successful when extracting from a mixed-metal solution. Instead, a 3rd phase is seen to form from these amides and some metals at higher metal concentrations, which removes the ligands from solution and prevents successful extraction of gold. Chapter 3 builds on an observation in Chapter 2 that a synergistic combination of a simple primary amide and an amine can extract chloridometalates that are typically difficult to solvent extract, such as iridium(III) and rhodium(III). These metalates, complexes with increased anionic charge and varying speciation in aqueous solution, are typically recovered last in a metal production flowsheet. The combination of a primary amide and primary amine was found to be the most effective at extracting the chloridometalates; the strength and strippability of the system is of particular interest in the context of rhodium(III) recovery as this metal currently is not extracted in commercial circuits. The mode of action of the system is investigated using similar techniques to Chapter 2, and reveals that the amine is the more important component of the synergistic mixture compared to the amide, with an improvement in extraction observed when both components are present. Rh(III) is extracted as a mixture of RhCl6 3– and RhCl5(OH2)2– complexes, dependent on the initial [HCl] concentration and the age of the initial aqueous solution. Chapter 4 investigates the feasibility of the recovery of lanthanides as anionic metalates from chloride-, nitrate- or sulfate-rich feeds. Reagents that have been found to be strong chloridometalate extractants, fragmented versions of these, and ‘classic’ commercial outer-sphere reagents are studied. The variations of ligand, anion type and concentration, proton concentration and solvent for the extraction of lanthanides is investigated. However, despite these permutations, no extraction of lanthanides is observed due to the difficulty in extracting more highly hydrated species and the lack of stability of the metalates in aqueous solution.

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Anatoxin-a (ANTX) is a neurotoxin produced by several freshwater cyanobacteria and has been implicated in the death of livestock and domestic animals from consumption of tainted surface waters. ANTX is unstable under normal conditions and is somewhat problematic to extract and study. Accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) combined with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS) was used to develop an efficient extraction and analytical method for both ANTX and the more commonly encountered hepatotoxic microcystins produced by cyanobacteria. The effects of nitrogen supply on the cellular production and release of ANTX was investigated in Aphanizomenon issatschenkoi (Ussaczew) Proschkina-Lavrenko (Nostocales). In contrast to the predictions of the carbonnutrient balance hypothesis, the maximum production was observed under moderate N stress. In addition, steady state fugacity-based models were employed to investigate ANTX’s distribution and fate in freshwater ecosytems. ANTX was not found to be very persistent in aquatic ecosystems and did not appear to bioaccumulate in fish, at least not from the dissolved phase.

Podophyllotoxin is a natural medicine possessing an outstanding anti-tumour activity. It can be extracted from the rhizome of Podophillum peltatum (American Podophyllum). Volumetric heating of a packed bed of particles including solvent during the extraction can eliminate the solvent pre-heating time and provide uniform and quick heating of the bed. RF-assisted extraction has a potential to be a promising extraction alternative over conventional methods. The characterization and assessment of RF-assisted extraction of podophyllotoxin is crucial. Thermal properties including specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and thermal diffusivity of a packed bed of P. peltatum with and without ethanol solutions were determined and the associated multiples regression equations were obtained for the purpose of thermal analysis of RF-assisted packed bed extraction process and related modeling investigations.<p> The dielectric properties of the packed bed of rhizome particles were measured from 10 to 30 MHz using a precision LCR meter and a liquid test fixture. The effects of temperature, particle moisture content, volumetric concentration of ethanol and bed porosity on the dielectric constant, dielectric loss factor and power penetration depth were investigated. The dielectric loss factor significantly increased with the particle moisture content for the beds with 100% and 70% ethanol but not with 30% ethanol. The dielectric loss factor was proportional to temperature directly and to frequency inversely. With 30% ethanol (and therefore 70% water), the dielectric loss factor of the bed dramatically increased compared to 70% and 100% ethanol. Porosity had a significant effect on the dielectric constant but not on the dielectric loss factor. The power penetration depth of a packed bed with 100% ethanol was significantly larger than those of the packed bed with 30% and 70% ethanol. Empirical regression equations were developed for simulation and design of an RF-assisted packed bed extraction of podophyllotoxin.<p> A RF-transparent batch reactor was made of glass filled Teflon and the extraction kinetics of podophyllotoxin was characterized. The effects of temperature, ethanol volumetric concentration, solid/liquid ratio, RF heating and particle moisture content on the extraction rate and yield of podophyllotoxin were investigated at different extraction conditions. A generalized diffusion mathematical model taking into account three major particle geometries was developed and coupled with genetic algorithm for determination of effective diffusivity and partition coefficient through an inverse simulation approach. The approach was first verified by reported experimental data of andrographolide extraction followed by determining the effective diffusivity and partition coefficient of podophyllotoxin for different conditions. The optimum batch extraction condition was achieved with 30% ethanol-water solution at 53¢XC. A prototype was developed for RF-assisted extraction of podophyllotoxin using two optical and RF-transparent reactors with horizontal and vertical orientations. Applying the optimum conditions obtained from batch experiments, the potential of RF heating for providing a uniform temperature in the packed bed was evaluated. The effect of solvent dielectric loss factor on uniform RF heating was investigated and the chemical effect of NaCl used for increasing dielectric loss factor of the solvent on podophyllotoxin was assessed. The horizontal packed bed demonstrated a large temperature gradient across the thickness of the bed during RF heating; however, a uniform RF heating was achieved when the vertical packed bed reactor was used for RF-assisted extraction of podophyllotoxin. The concentration of 2.5 g NaCl/L of the solvent at the temperature controller set point of 40aC provided a relatively good uniform temperature of 50aC within the bed. Evaluating three flow rates of 130, 160 and 200 ml/min for the solvent of 30% ethanol with 2.5 g NaCl/L indicated that the flow rate of 160 ml/min could provide better temperature overlap of four positions of the bed height.