No description available.

No description available.

Universiẗat, Diss., 2003--Stuttgart.

Zugl.: Darmstadt, Techn. Universiẗat, Diss., 2008.

GDPR är en lag som trädde i kraft den 25 Maj 2018 och ersatte i Sverige Personuppgiftslagen; lagen gäller för organisationer som hanterar personuppgifter tillhörande EU-medborgare eller personer som befinner sig i EU. Om en organisation inte följer GDPR kan det leda till betydande ekonomiska avgifter. Många hemsidor hanterar personuppgifter, både direkt genom t.ex. inloggningsuppgifter men också indirekt genom t.ex. tredjepartsförfrågningar. Det är därför många som är ansvariga för hemsidor nu står inför en stor utmaning, nämligen att följa GDPR. Den här rapporten beskriver utvecklingen av ett verktyg som vi utvecklade för att få en överblick över om hemsidan följer GDPR eller inte i vissa aspekter. Verktyget bygger på olika komponenter som analyserar en del av hemsidan var och deras sammanställda resultat visas i ett webbgränssnitt för användaren. Målet med verktyget var att kunna hitta minst ett fabricerat GDPR-relaterat fel i en testmiljö och det lyckades vi med. Verktyget kan inte säga om en sida följer GDPR eller inte men det kan peka ut potentiella problemområden som t.ex. på förhand ikryssade boxar, osäkra tredjepartsförfrågningar och informationsläckage via en rad webbteknologier. Denna information kan användas för att få en snabb överblick över problem och som grund för vidare analys.

Techn. Hochsch., Diss.--Aachen, 2007.

Zugl.: Aachen, Techn. Hochsch., Diss., 2008.

Mikrotubuli sind filamentöse intrazelluläre Polymere, die als grundlegende Bestandteile subzellulärer Strukturen in Eukaryoten dienen. Diese Studie verwendet einen vergleichenden Ansatz, um zu untersuchen, wie sich die intrinsischen dynamischen und biochemischen Eigenschaften von Tubulin zwischen verschiedenen Spezies unterscheiden, und zeigt ihre Konsequenzen in zwei verschiedenen physiologischen Kontexten: 1) Bestimmung der Spindelgröße bei Fröschen der Gattung Xenopus und 2) Spezifität von Mikrotubuli-Inhibitoren für Plasmodium falciparum-Mikrotubuli über denen ihres menschlichen Wirts. In den Eiern der Froschgattung Xenopus wird die Länge der meiotischen Spindel biochemisch festgelegt und erreicht unabhängig von räumlichen Einschränkungen eine Obergrenze. Messungen der Dynamik von Xenopus-Mikrotubuli zeigen, dass X. laevis-Mikrotubuli sowohl schneller wachsen als auch länger leben als die von X. tropicalis. Darüber hinaus spielt die Quantifizierung der Länge und Massenverteilung der Xenopus-Mikrotubuli zusammen mit den Reaktionen der Eiextrakt-Spindelanordnung eine Rolle für die intrinsische Dynamik der Mikrotubuli bei der Modulation der Spindellänge. Mikrotubuli sind auch Wirkstofftargets bei Pilz- und parasitären Helmintheninfektionen und haben in den letzten Jahrzehnten die Aufmerksamkeit als potenzielles Wirkstoffziel beim Malariaparasiten Plasmodium falciparum auf sich gezogen. Um die Dynamik und Medikamentspezifität von Mikrotubuli von P. falciparum zu charakterisieren, haben wir Tubulin direkt von den Parasiten gereinigt. Zum ersten Mal wurden hier dynamische P. falciparum-Mikrotubuli in vitro rekonstituiert und eine parasitenspezifische Unterdrückung der Dynamik von Mikrotubuli durch Oryzalin und Amiprofos-Methyl direkt nachgewiesen. Diese Studie legt einen experimentellen Rahmen fest, um direkt auf parasitenspezifische Hemmung von Mikrotubuli zu testen, die bisher unter Verwendung bestehender in-vitro-Ansätze nicht beobachtet wurden. / Microtubules are filamentous intracellular polymers that are fundamental components of subcellular structures including the spindle, the cytoskeleton, and flagella in eukaryotes. This study uses a comparative approach to investigate how the intrinsic dynamic and biochemical characteristics of tubulin vary between species and demonstrates their consequences in two different physiological contexts: 1) Spindle size control in Xenopus frogs, and 2) The specificity of microtubule inhibitors for Plasmodium falciparum microtubules over those of their human host. In Xenopus frog eggs, the length of the spindle is biochemically controlled and reaches an upper limit independent of spatial constraints. In this study, in vitro measurements of Xenopus microtubule dynamics show that X. laevis microtubules are both faster-growing and longer-lived X. tropicalis, independent of the influence of microtubule-associated proteins. Furthermore, quantification of Xenopus microtubule length and mass distributions, combined with egg extract spindle assembly reactions, establishes a role for intrinsic microtubule dynamics in modulating spindle length. Microtubules are also established drug targets in fungal and parasitic helminth infections and have in the past decades drawn attention as a potential drug target in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. In order to characterize P. falciparum microtubule dynamics, structure, and drug specificity, we have used an affinity chromatography-based approach to purify tubulin directly from blood-stage parasites. For the first time, dynamic P. falciparum microtubules have been reconstituted in vitro and parasite-specific suppression of microtubule dynamics by oryzalin and amiprofos methyl has been directly demonstrated. This study establishes an experimental framework to directly test for parasite-specific microtubule inhibition, microtubule structure, and interactions with MAPs that previously have not observed using existing in vitro approaches.

Eukaryotic cells have to divide constantly in order to promote the growth of certain organs, to replace dying or damaged cells, or to set up an entire organism. These essential processes are called mitosis in the case of somatic cell division. Mitotic cell division is the process during which chromosomes, centrosomes, and microtubules (MTs) are involved to set up a bipolar structure called the “mitotic spindle”. This bipolar spindle is formed by MTs, which are presumably mainly organized from the centrosomes. However, more data are being published that suggest MTs nucleation can occur from other MTs or even a chromosome surface. These biopolymers are built from α/β-tubulin heterodimers and can dynamically grow and shrink to exert forces necessary for chromosome segregation. Previous studies of spindles during mitosis have allowed the identification of different MT classes based on their plus-ends interaction with different cellular target sites. One of the MT classes is the kinetochore microtubules (KMTs), which physically connect chromosomes and centrosomes (i.e. spindle pole) via a specialized protein structure termed the “kinetochore”. This kinetochore-to-spindle pole connection has been studied in many organisms. In budding yeast, this connection is established by only a single KMT. In contrast, multiple KMTs bind to each mammalian kinetochore and form an MT bundle also called “k-fiber”. The ultrastructural architecture of the mammalian k-fiber connection is not well documented. Currently, different models concerning the nature of the kinetochore-to-spindle pole connection via k-fibers are discussed in the literature, i.e. a direct, semi-direct or indirect connection. The widely accepted ‘direct’ model proposes that all k-fibers of the mammalian spindle are formed through tight bundles of up to 20 KMTs, with all MT minus ends associated with the centrosome. However, it is necessary to understand the k-fibers structure in order to interpret its role during chromosome segregation. Here the architecture of the k-fiber was studied in human HeLa, U2OS and RPE-1 cell lines, as these different types of cells have been widely used in studies of mitosis. This thesis aimed to systematically investigate the characteristics of mammalian k-fibers and their attachment to the kinetochore within mammalian metaphase spindles. For that, the ultrastructure of mitotic spindles and k-fibers were analyzed using serial-section electron tomography primarily in HeLa cells. Furthermore, the spindle ultrastructure was compared by electron tomography to metaphase spindles in both U2OS and RPE-1 cells. Electron tomographic analysis of the mitotic spindle in HeLa cells revealed that the kinetochore-to-spindle pole connection is formed by k-fibers consisting of ~9 KMTs. Moreover, the data revealed that not all KMTs in k-fibers are directly associated with one of the spindle poles. Instead, KMT ends were located along the length of k-fibers indicating strongly for a semi-direct connection between the kinetochores and the spindle poles. Unexpectedly, by correlating the k-fiber ultrastructure with its position in the mitotic spindle, it can be demonstrated that the k-fiber structure varied depending on the position on the metaphase plate. It can also be shown that k-fibers located in the center of the metaphase plate had a tendency to form straighter and more bundled k-fibers. In contrast, k-fibers associated with the periphery of the metaphase plate had a more loose and disorganized structure resembling a fusiform shape. Furthermore, additional analysis of U2OS and RPE-1 cells indicated ultrastructural differences between the different cell lines. Mainly, differences between HeLa and RPE-1 cells were observed. K-fibers observed in RPE-1 cells showed a lower curvature and overall a more bundled ultrastructure compared to HeLa or U2OS cells. However, due to the small sample size for U2OS and RPE-1 cells, the results have to be confirmed in future experiments to conclude that there are indeed functional and structural differences in the k-fiber organization in different mammalian cell lines. Taken together, this work presents the first detailed quantitative ultrastructural analysis of KMTs in whole spindles in three different human cell lines. The data revealed that the currently favored direct model of k-fiber ultrastructure is oversimplified and needs to be corrected in terms of the k-fibers interaction with the spindle pole and the surrounding MT network within the mitotic spindle. The data here will serve as a structural basis for further analyses of mutant situations and contribute to our understanding of the overall organization and function of MTs in mitotic spindles.:Summary 6 Zusammenfassung 8 List of figures 10 List of tables 13 List of abbreviations and symbols 14 1 Introduction 19 1.1 The morphology of the mitotic spindle 21 1.1.1 Centrosomes 22 1.1.2 Microtubules 23 1.2 Kinetochores, KMTs and k-fibers 28 1.2.1 A brief history of k-fiber formation in mammalian cells 30 1.2.2 Models of the k-fiber ultrastructure in mammalian cells 32 2 Aims of this thesis 35 3 Materials and methods 36 3.1 Materials 37 3.1.1 Mammalian cell lines 37 3.1.2 Chemicals 38 3.1.3 Instrumentation and materials 40 3.1.4 Solutions and buffers 44 3.1.5 Software 46 3.2 Methods 47 3.2.1 Handling of cell cultures 47 3.2.2 Custom-designed incubation chambers 49 3.2.3 Specimen preparation for electron microscopy 51 3.2.4 Quality assessment of samples, acquisition of the tomographic data, and the 3D reconstruction 59 3.2.5 Ultrastructural analysis of MTs in mitotic spindles 62 3.2.6 Ultrastructural analysis of the k-fiber organization 70 4 Results 76 4.1 Initial characterization of mammalian mitotic spindles 77 4.2 Ultrastructure of KMTs 84 4.3 Curvature and tortuosity of KMTs 91 4.4 Ultrastructure of k-fibers 98 4.5 Effect of metaphase position on the k-fiber ultrastructure 102 5 Discussion 110 5.1. Comparison of data sets from different cell lines 111 5.2. Establishing a data analysis pipeline for the analysis of KMTs 113 5.3 Ultrastructural characterization of KMTs and k-fibers in HeLa cells 114 5.3.1 K-fibers have an unexpectedly low number of KMTs 115 5.3.2 Semi-direct kinetochores-to-spindle pole connection 117 5.3.3 Shape of k-fibers 121 5.4 Positional effect on the k-fiber shape 124 5.5 Comparison of k-fiber ultrastructure in different mammalian cells 127 5.6 Outlook 130 References 133 Appendix 1 149 Appendix 2 150 Appendix 3 151 Appendix 4 152 Acknowledgments 153

The production of germ cells is an essential process in all sexually reproducing eukaryotes. During male meiosis, four haploid sperm cells are formed from one primary spermatocyte, thereby undergoing two consecutive cell divisions after only one round of chromosome duplication. This process was studied in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, as this model organism offers a number of experimental advantages to simultaneously analyze spindle dynamics and ultrastructure. The worm is easy to cultivate, completely sequenced and numerous mutants are available, the worm is small and thus ideal for light and electron microscopic investigations, and the transparent body allows live-cell imaging within living animals. Importantly, meiotic spindles in C. elegans males are organized by centrosomes and show a lagging X-chromosome, which is always segregated after the autosomes have been partitioned to the newly forming secondary spermatocytes. The aim of this thesis was to systematically investigate this characteristic feature of chromosome segregation in male meiotic spindles. For that, spindle dynamics in the first and second meiotic division was analyzed with fluorescence light microscopy. Furthermore, the spindle ultrastructure was investigated in spindles of various stages of meiosis I using electron tomography. Light microscopy revealed a shortening of the distance between centrosomes and chromosomes (anaphase A) and an increase in the pole-to-pole distance (anaphase B). Moreover, spindles in male meiosis I and II showed differences in certain aspects of spindle dynamics. In addition it was demonstrated that spindles in metaphase II in the presence of a single X-chromosome were shorter compared to spindles without the X-chromosome. In addition, it was found that the process of aging had an impact on spindle length in both metaphase I and II. By manipulating the number of unpaired chromosomes, it could be demonstrated that the lagging behavior of univalent chromosomes is caused by the incapability of pairing in meiotic prophase. After performing a quantitative analysis of the light microscopic data it was further shown that a dynamic microtubule bundle is connecting the X-chromosome to the spindle poles. Using laser microsurgery it could be demonstrated that this bundle exerts a pulling force to the univalent chromosome throughout anaphase. Unexpectedly, electron tomography showed that anaphase-type movements of the autosomes were not accompanied by a shortening of the kinetochore microtubules. Instead, three findings indicated a shortening of the centrosome-chromosome distance itself: (1) upon anaphase onset, tension is released on the beforehand stretched autosomes; (2) centrosomes shrink in preparation for meiosis II and (3) the attachment angle of end-on microtubules changes. Interestingly, microtubules connecting the X-chromosome to the spindle poles showed a high curvature around the kinetochore region of the X-chromosome, suggesting an involvement of motor proteins in the process of segregation. Taken together, this thesis gives the first detailed quantitative analysis of spindle dynamics and architecture during male meiosis in the nematode C. elegans. This wild-type data will serve as a basis for future mutant analyses and should help to further understand the complex dynamic and ultrastructural aspects of spindle organization in the meiotic divisions in C. elegans males.