在兒童習得談話溝通的發展過程中，兒童需要習得多種談話技巧才能全然地參與談話，而其中一項重要的談話技巧即為引語的使用。引語在言談分析中是指一種半固定的語句用以加速言談的流暢。然而至今沒有研究探討過兒童使用引語的情形，因此本研究旨在探討中文言談中學齡兒童使用引語的發展情形。本研究將十二名學齡兒童依年齡分為兩組，並將其自然談話內容錄音且加以轉錄，以資進一步之分析與研究。此研究結果發現隨著年紀的增長兒童愈常使用引語，且愈能行使不同的種類形式來表達。這些發展性的成長與兒童的心智、語言及社會發展有關；此外，本研究結果亦發現學齡兒童最常使用的引語種類。本研究期待能增加人們對於兒童引語的認識，更能提供國小教師指導或幫助學齡兒童在言談中使用引語，進而增進兒童言談順暢無誤。

Face-to-face communication is multimodal. In unscripted spoken discourse we can observe the interaction of several "semiotic layers", modalities of information such as syntax, discourse structure, gesture, and intonation. <br>We explore the role of gesture and intonation in structuring and aligning information in spoken discourse through a study of the co-occurrence of pitch accents and gestural apices.<br> Metaphorical spatialization through gesture also plays a role in conveying the contextual relationships between the speaker, the government and other external forces in a naturally-occurring political speech setting.

La tesis doctoral que aquí se presenta se podría enmarcar dentro de tres campos lingüísticos: el análisis de género, la retórica contrastiva y el análisis de corpus.El análisis de género (Swales 1981, 1990; Dudley-Evans & Henderson 1990a, 1990b; Henderson & Hewings 1990; Bathia 1993, 2002; Skulstad 1996, 2002; Flowerdew 1994, 2002) es un parte dentro del amplio campo de análisis del discurso (Barber 1962; Halliday, Strevens & McIntosh 1964). En este estudio nos centramos en el estudio de la clase magistral dentro de los denominados géneros académicos en el aula (Fortanet 2004b). La clase magistral es un género hablado y como tal posee ciertas peculiaridades de los géneros hablados en contraposición a los géneros académicos escritos.Nuestro estudio se centra en la comparación y contraste de dos lenguas, el español peninsular y el inglés americano, ya que como corpus se utilizan clases magistrales españolas y norte-americanas y en consecuencia se toman como referencia estudios de retórica contrastiva. En este estudio nos centramos en un aspecto concreto del lenguaje, los marcadores discursivos. Con el análisis de los marcadores discursivos en el lenguaje académico hablado en español e inglés norte-americano pretendemos ver como se usan los marcadores discursivos para favorecer a hablantes nativos y no nativos de español e inglés en el espacio de educación superior.

Dans une approche multi-théorique, cette étude propose d'observer des emplois en contexte des marqueurs genre en français, like en anglais et so en allemand, à travers des occurrences attestées et issues de productions (principalement orales) présentant un faible degré de planification. Cette analyse contrastive part du constat selon lequel ces trois termes présentent des emplois non-standard similaires à travers les langues, malgré des origines et des fonctionnements standard différents. Nous envisageons leurs caractéristiques communes du point de vue du changement linguistique qu'est la « grammaticalisation ». L'observation du corpus d'étude nous amène ensuite à analyser genre, like et so en convoquant différents outils théoriques syntaxiques et macro-syntaxiques, prosodiques et énonciatifs. Dans des configurations en « liste », telles que des énumérations, des reformulations ou après des segments interrompus de la production orale, nous examinons dans quelle mesure ces trois mots fonctionnent comme marqueurs de la construction progressive du discours. Cette étude se poursuit par l'analyse d'un fort point de congruence entre les trois marqueurs, à savoir l'introduction de discours direct. / Through a multi-theoretical approach, and using a corpus of authentic examples of unplanned conversations, this dissertation aims at describing the markers genre in French, like in English and so in German. This contrastive analysis is based on the observation that these three words display similar non-standard functions across languages despite their different origins and standard functions. Their common features are investigated from the theoretical perspective of « grammaticalization » as a type of linguistic change. Through the observation of the study corpus, we analyze genre, like and so with different theoretical tools, syntactic and macro-syntactic, prosodic and enunciative. In « list » configurations, such as enumerations, reformulations or interrupted segments of spoken discourse, we present how these three words work as markers of the progressive construction of discourse. This study further investigates the quotative function of genre, like and so as a strikingly congruent feature.

Questa tesi riflette l’attuale interesse per il dibattito educativo sul ruolo e sull’uso dell’inglese come lingua veicolare in ambiente accademico. I programmi che utilizzano l’inglese come Medium of Instruction (EMI) sono al centro dell’attenzione di questo studio, che si compone di una parte quantitativa e una parte qualitativa. Attraverso un’analisi aggiornata dei dati raccolti da Costa e Coleman nel 2012, la prima parte descrive i risultati di un questionario spedito a tutte le università italiane; la parte qualitativa descrive l’utilizzo dei marcatori metadiscorsivi impiegati da quattro docenti dell’Università Cattolica di Milano. A tale scopo, è stata adottata una versione semplificata del modello di Ädel (2003), proposto da Nobles (2010), e applicato in questa sede al discorso accademico orale. L’aumento del numero di corsi di EMI in Italia registrato da Costa e Coleman nel 2012 è rimasto stabile. Il confronto tra l’uso di marcatori metadiscorsivi personali e impersonali mostra un maggior utilizzo dei primi, in particolare del pronome personale “we”. Infine, lo studio vuole fornire dati e riflessioni a docenti, istituzioni universitarie e legislatori, utili anche alla progettazione di corsi di formazione per insegnanti. / This thesis reflects the shared current interest in the ongoing educational debate on the role and use of English as a medium of instruction in academic settings. English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) programs are the main focus of this study which includes a quantitative and a qualitative part. Through an up-to-date analysis of the data on EMI courses in Italy collected by Costa and Coleman in 2012, the first part shows the results of a questionnaire that was sent to all Italian universities; the qualitative part describes the use of metadiscourse markers by four Italian lecturers at the Università Cattolica of Milan. The simplified and restricted classification model of metadiscourse markers proposed by Nobles (2010), adapted from Ädel (2003), was here applied to the academic spoken discourse. The increase in the number of EMI courses in Italy registered by Costa and Coleman in 2012 has remained stable. The comparison of the use of personal and impersonal metadiscourse shows that personal metadiscourse tokens surpass the impersonal counterpart, with the pronoun “we” as the most frequent self-mention marker in the corpus. Finally, the present study can be of great interest both for lecturers and university policymakers or teacher-training designers.