Because of its practicality, many exercise physiologists use the cycle ergometer to test cardiovascular endurance; yet due to physical injury or handicap, there is a great segment of our population that cannot easily manage an upright seated position. The recumbent position helps to stabilize the upper body, and therefore may help those whose repertoire of postural control is compromised. At present, the majority of studies dealing with upright and recumbent positions for graded exercise testing show the upright position to yield higher HR and VO2 readings. In order to determine the difference between the upright and recumbent cycle ergometer using the Y-Way Protocol, 41 healthy subjects (24 females, 17 males) performed GXT's in each position until HR reached 90% age-predicted max. Subjects were broken into two groups, with one group performing the recumbent test first and the other group performing the upright portion of testing first. Predicted . . and actual VO2 measurements were recorded for each subject, and maximum VO2 predicted. A 2x2x2 ANOVA was applied to the data to determine interaction and effects among position (upright vs. recumbent), protocol (YMCA and actual VO2), and gender. No differences in VO2 max between the upright and recumbent position were observed in either gender or protocol. It was determined that the recumbent position is a valid testing position in the estimation of VO2 max using workload adjustments determined by the Y -Way protocol.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of prophylactic ankle bracing and the effects of prophylactic ankle taping on athletes' speed and agility. Thirty-one subjects, twenty-one male professional baseball players and ten female collegiate softball players with no history of an ankle injury the previous six months, participated in three performance tests while wearing the ASO ankle brace, a modified Gimby ankle taping, and unsupported. The subjects completed the flying forty yard dash for speed, the SEMO test for general agility, and the Edgren test for specific lateral agility. Multiple trials were administrated to account for learning effects. The resultant data were analyzed with a multivariate repeated-measures design. The data were tested for order effects; no significant differences were found. The data were then tested for multicollinarity by use of an intercorrelation matrix across the three dependent (compacted) variables. A 2 x 3 multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to analyze gender and support conditions (with repeated measures) effects across the dependent variables; and significant differences were followed up with univariate analyses of variance (ANOVAs). Effects for interactions of gender x support condition were evaluated by Wilkes' A. There were no statistically significant interactions found. In univariate ANOVAs for post hoc testing significant differences were found for gender effect on speed (forty yd. dash), general agility(SEMO test), and specific lateral agility (Edgren test). ) A significant difference was found in the follow up univariate analysis across support conditions for general agility (SEMO test) wherein the unsupported condition was significantly faster (less time) than the braced or taped conditions. On the basis of the findings, it was concluded that the subjects' speed in the forty yard dash was not significantly reduced by bracing or taping. It was concluded that the subjects' agility was significantly slowed by both prophylactic bracing and taping as demonstrated by performance in the SEMO general agility test. It was concluded that males and females are not differentially affected by bracing and I or taping. There was no significant statistical difference found between the ASO Ankle brace and the taped ankle in speed and agility tests. It can be concluded that budgetary considerations and personnel time maybe the critical factors when selecting certain ankle braces over ankle taping.

Summaries in Afrikaans and English / Die primere doel van hierdie ondersoek was om vas te stel hoe belangrik dit is dat 'n komponent sportsielkunde ingesluit word in die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers. Ten einde hierdie doel te bereik, is 'n teoretiese sowel as 'n empiriese ondersoek uitgevoer. Tydens die teoretiese ondersoek is verskillende aspekte van die sportsielkunde ontleed, waarin die rol van die vakonderwyser telkens toegelig is. Tydens die empiriese ondersoek (waaraan 134 vakonderwysers wat sport afrig en 235 sportleerlinge deelgeneem het) is aangetoon dat: Ongeveer 82% van die vakonderwysers wat sport afrig, opleiding in afrigtingstegnieke ontvang het, maar slegs 16% het opleiding in sportsielkunde ontvang. • Vakonderwysers daarvan oortuig is dat sportsielkunde ingesluit moet word in die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers. • Dit vir sportleerlinge baie belangrik is dat sportmanne en -vroue vertroud moet wees met bepaalde aspekte van sportsielkunde en dat hulle afrigters kennis moet dra van sportsielkunde. 'n Aspek soos motivering in sport baie belangrik geag word deur onderwysers sowel as sportleerlinge, terwyl angs in sport en aggressie in sport heelwat laer op die ranglys verskyn. / It was the primary aim of this investigation to establish how important it is that a component of sport psychology be included in the training programme of subject teachers. In order to achieve this goal, a theoretical as well as an empirical investigation were conducted. During the literature study, different aspects of sport psychology were analyzed and the role of the teacher was highlighted in each instance. During the empirical study ( in which 134 subject teachers and 235 sport pupils participated) it was indicated that; Approximately 82% of the subject teachers coaching sport, had received training in coaching techniques, but only 16% had received training in sport psychology. Subject teachers are convinced that sport psychology should be included in the training programme of subject teachers. Pupils participating in sport regard it as very important that sportsmen and - women should be acquainted with certain aspects of sport psychology and that their coaches should bear knowledge of sport psychology. An aspect such as motivation in sport is regarded as being very important by teachers and sport pupils, while anxiety in sport and aggression in sport appear much lower on the rating scale. / Educational Studies / M.Ed. (met spesialisering in Voorligting)

Background: Since the invention of Gatorade, the sports nutrition market has expanded rapidly. While the market has expanded, a way to catalogue these sports nutrition supplements (SNSs) has not followed. This lack of centralized information creates a problem for dietitians and other health professionals who need to make informed recommendations for their clients using SNSs. Objective: The objective of this project is to assess the need for a SNS formulary and develop a formulary based on need. Method: The need for the formulary was assessed by creating and distributing a survey to dietitians and other health professionals who subscribe to the Nutrition Care Manual or Sports Nutrition Care Manual (SNCM). After the responses were collected, supplement categories and product manufacturers were identified for inclusion. Data collection began by visiting manufacturers' web pages and recording nutrition information into a standardized form provided by the web developers at the SNCM. These completed forms were then sent to the Online Publishing Manager at the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. This information was then published into a formulary accessible through the SNCM. Results: The survey yielded 111 respondents. The respondents indicated a personal (71%) and client (64%) need for a sports nutrition formulary. The respondents also indicated that they are very likely (51%) or somewhat likely (40%) to use a sports nutrition formulary if it were created. Based on these responses, a formulary was created and published through the SNCM. Conclusion: Version 1.0 of the Sports Nutrition Formulary was published to the SNCM on April 15th, 2013. This formulary offers the ability for dietitians and other health professionals to make the most informed, up to date decision regarding the best SNS for their client.

The Internet is changing the way people obtain their information, growing at a faster rate than any previous media outlet. Experts fully expect this growth to continue. The power of the Internet as a new media source has led to research concerning its effect on traditional media (newspaper, television, radio, and magazines) for certain tasks. However, research has yet to focus solely on sports information gathering, which has been identified as the number one reason men between eighteen and thirty-four years of age access the Internet. The purpose of this study was to examine where students get their sports information, to determine whether gathering sports information through the Internet leads to a decrease in gathering sports information through traditional media. / Department of Journalism

Injury surveillance research has established that over 20 % of cricket injuries are related to the upper limb (Leary & White, 2000; Ranson & Gregory, 2008; Stretch, 2003), with bowlers associated altered rotational joint range of motion (Aginsky et al., 2004, BellJenje & Gray, 2005 and Stuelcken et al., 2008). As the applicability of such observations is limited, the aim of this thesis was to provide researchers with a greater understanding of the pathomechanics of shoulder injuries afflicting cricket bowlers though quantifying associated musculoskeletal adaptations and subsequently through the development and validation of a bowling specific kinematic model, establish the influence these may impart on bowling technique. The use of diagnostic ultrasound within the first experimental study in a cohort of bowlers without a history of shoulder injury, established a high prevalence of supraspinatus (45 %) and subscapularis (50 %) tendon pathology, providing insight into common musculotendinous pathology and adaptations that are indicative of the future potential of injury. Data presented within the second study aimed to first quantify the kinematics of the shoulder during the bowling delivery in relation to humerothoracic motion and, second, the influence of rotation sequence to described humerothoracic motion was investigated. Findings established that whilst the bowling delivery was associated with large variability, future research must acknowledge the contribution of the scapula to shoulder motion. As such, due to the complexity of quantifying shoulder motion during cricket bowling, the following three experimental studies evaluated and developed the CSBT shoulder model through modifying current methods. The mCAST method in conjunction with an acromion cluster, was established to not only reduce resultant RMSE associated with scapula landmarks by up to 0.016 m, but also increase the repeatability and robustness of reconstructing GHJ location using the SCoRE method. The emphasis of the final experimental study was to apply the CSBT shoulder model to establish the contribution of individual rotator cuff muscles to shoulder joint stability and, to identify phases of the bowling delivery which increases the risk of injury. This case study established that during the bowling delivery the shoulder experiences large multi-planar forces placing demand on musculature, in particular supraspinatus and Subscapularis to stabilise the joint. These findings in conjunction with those of the first experimental study, not only identify structures at risk of injury but also establish that for the effective formulation of injury prevention strategies the bowling delivery must be investigated in its entirety.

The purpose of this study was to construct a theory of sports competitiveness which would (1) contribute to a greater understanding of competitiveness as an aspect of human behavior affecting sports performance, and (2) serve as a source of hypotheses for experimental research and as a framework for interpretation of the results of experimental studies of competitiveness.

Speaking to a local radio station in the 1960s, with the glitz, glitter and glamour of televised professional wrestling at its height, one old, retired Cumbrian wrestler declared that ‘wrestling…was a game for the field not the stage'. This statement, condensed and potent as it is, could stand in for the questions this thesis asks and seeks to answer: why did wrestling develop as a professional, performed ‘sporting entertainment'? To answer this question, existing theories of social and sports history are combined with cultural studies methods and applied to Pierre Bourdieu's notion of fields. Chapters one and two surveys the birth of a fielded society and the growth of spectator and professional sport as part of a wider cultural field in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Considering many sports during this time had relationships with the theatre, circus and fairground, the seemingly logical expansion of professional sport was closer to that of professional wrestling. Sport, however, did not develop in this way. Chapter three explore the reasons for this and posits that the genesis of the sporting field, demonstrated by the growth of sporting bodies and the perpetuation of amateur ideal, dominated the field. Control of wrestling, however, for various reasons, was not gained in this manner. Chapter four examines the consequences of this when professional wrestling became a fully performed sport in the interwar years. Finally, chapter five assesses the relationship between the sporting field and television in the late twentieth century. Wrestling as a ‘sporting entertainment' is of interest precisely because it displays a ‘discarded possible' of how professional sport may have grown had it not been for the institutions and ideologies active within the field during the late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century. It also demonstrates the often precarious nature of fields and concludes that sport's meanings, pleasure and values are not as consistent as are first assumed.

Elite youth soccer player’s performance depends on a multitude of factors (Stølen et al. 2005). Muscular force production capability is of likely importance due to the frequency of powerful actions that occur within match play (Faude et al. 2012). Little is known though of the training undertaken at elite youth soccer academies to increase muscular force production capabilities particularly across maturation groups. There is also little evidence around the nature, or genetic influence on this variable in these populations. Greater knowledge on these areas would be beneficial to aid an understanding of performance and to plan practical interventions. Eight weeks of training for players in the under 9 (U9) through to under 21 (U21) age groups (Chapter 3) were recorded to investigate the duration of each training type completed. The total training duration increased from U9 to U14 before reducing at U15 and then remaining unchanged through to, and including, the U21 age group. Soccer training accounted for 97 ± 4 % of session time in the U9 to U14 groups and 74 ± 3 % in the U15 to U21 groups. The remainder of training was made up of work that was not soccer based. The data in this case study suggest that training time is focussed on the technical/tactical development throughout the academy, particularly in the younger age groups. Study 2, part A (Chapter 4) provided baseline isometric maximal voluntary force (MVF) data for players and an maturation-matched non-elite control group. MVF was slightly higher in the elite compared to control cohorts during an isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP, 118.29 ± 13.47 N compared to 109.69 ± 17.00 N). Such data may indicate that ability to produce force, specifically isometric MVF, may not be a crucial determinant of performance in elite youth soccer based on this sample. The purpose of study 2, part B (Chapter 4) was to establish the effect of 8 weeks typical training on elite youth soccer players’ IMTP MVF. This was also compared to a non-elite control cohort matched for maturation status and not undertaking training. Isometric MVF did not change in either group over the 8 week period (P = 0.386). These data suggest that this elite youth soccer training simply maintained current strength levels and was not sufficient to elicit increases in isometric MVF. Study 3 (Chapter 5) examined variations in four separate genes, all identified as potentially having an influence on muscular force production capabilities: PPARA rs4253778, NOS3 rs2070744, COLIA1 rs2249492 and VDR rs2228570. Allele and genotype frequency was determined along with the influence of those single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on isometric MVF. Only NOS3 was different in genotype distribution between cohorts with TT genotype showing 45.0 % and 30.4 % frequency in elite and control cohorts respectively (P < 0.001). Furthermore, no difference was seen between cohorts for isometric MVF data when comparing influence of any genotypes of any gene. These data provide novel information around genotype frequency in this population and would suggest that the gene variations examined here might not play a role in force production in these populations. Overall, these findings suggest that muscular force production may be important for elite youth soccer performance, but that current training practices to improve this characteristic should be revised. This seems especially relevant given the lack of genetic association with force production in the gene variations examined here, i.e. elite youth soccer players do not appear to be selected based on a genetic predisposition for greater isometric force production capabilities.

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