IL-6 is an inflammatory cytokine that contributes to the pathogenesis of many immunological diseases including rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, allergic asthma, as well as the protection against infections caused by various pathogens. These are linked to its role in regulating CD4 T cell differentiation and effector function. Most of these functions are dependent on the IL-6-mediated signaling through the transcription factor Stat3. In this thesis, we identify a novel molecular mechanism by which IL-6 regulates CD4 T cell effector function. We show that IL-6-dependent signal raises the levels of mitochondrial Ca2+ late during activation of CD4 T cells. This is further used to prolong the expression of effector cytokines IL-4 and IL-21. The modulation of mitochondrial Ca2+ is mediated by the regulation of mitochondrial Stat3 and the formation of respiratory supercomplexes. Thus, in addition to the canonical signaling of IL-6 through Stat3 as a transcription factor, IL-6 also modulates mitochondrial Stat3 to regulate mitochondrial function in CD4 T cells. This could be an alternative pathway by which IL-6 regulates effector function of CD4 T cells and it could contribute to the pathogenesis of inflammatory disease. Little is known about the effects of IL-6 on CD8 T cells. In this thesis, we reveal a paradigm-shifting mechanism by which IL-6 regulates antibody production by converting CD8 T cells into B cell helpers through IL-21. Briefly, IL-6 promotes the differentiation of a subset of naïve CD8 T cells into a unique population of effector CD8 T cells characterized by the production of high levels of IL-21. IL-21-producing CD8 T cells provide help to B cells to induce isotype switching and protective antibody production during infection. In summary, this thesis provides new insights into both mechanistic and functional aspects of IL-6 in regulating T cell function. These findings may shed light on the development of new therapeutic approaches in treating autoimmune disorders and preventing infectious diseases.

La formation des trois feuillets embryonnaires primordiaux et leur régionalisation selon les axes embryonnaires sont des étapes cruciales au cours du développement précoce. Dans ce contexte, nous avons montré que XDSCR6, un inducteur du mésoderme et des axes embryonnaires qui présente des propriétés dorsalisantes, interagit physiquement et fonctionnellement avec le facteur de transcription XSTAT3. Au cours des étapes précoces du développement, XSTAT3 est active pendant la gastrulation et l'activation anormale de cette protéine dans la région dorsale induit la ventralisation des tissus embryonnaires. Par ailleurs, nous avons montré que XDSCR6 et XSTAT3 présentent des rôles antagonistes in vivo au cours de la mise en place des axes embryonnaires. Cet antagonisme peut être expliqué par le fait que XDSCR6 régule négativement l'activité transcriptionnelle de XSTAT3 en modulant sa méthylation sur les résidus lysine. L'ensemble de nos résultats a permis de déterminer l'importance cruciale de cette modification post-traductionnelle dans les propriétés ventralisantes de XSTAT3. Par ailleurs, nous avons montré que la méthyltransférase XEZH2 méthyle et active XSTAT3 in vivo. Des travaux antérieurs de l'équipe avaient montré que les propriétés dorsalisantes de XDSCR6 reposent sur sa capacité à inhiber l'activité épigénétique répressive de XEZH2 sur les gènes du mésoderme dorsal. Ainsi, nos travaux suggèrent que XDSCR6 est un modulateur transcriptionnel situé à l'interface entre certains régulateurs chromatiniens et des facteurs de transcription pendant la mise en place des axes embryonnaires. / One of the most challenging questions in developmental biology is to understand how a totipotent zygote differentiates into an organism containing all cell lineages. The formation of the three germ layers and the establishment of embryonic axis are fundamental events during early development. In this context, we demonstrated that XDSCR6, a mesoderm and embryonic axis inducer that exhibits dorsalizing properties, physically and functionally interacts with the transcriptional factor XSTAT3. During early development, XSTAT3 is active throughout gastrulation step and its abnormal activation in dorsal region leads to embryonic tissues ventralization. Furthermore, we showed that XDSCR6 and XSTAT3 have antagonistic roles in vivo during axis formation. This antagonism can be explained by the fact that XDSCR6 negatively regulates the transcriptional activity of XSTAT3 by interfering with its methylation on lysine residues. Moreover, this post-translational modification plays a crucial role in the ventralization abilities of XSTAT3. In a previous study, it has been shown that XDSCR6 negatively regulates the XEZH2 repressive epigenetic activity on dorsal mesoderm genes. Thus, we propose that XDSCR6 is a transcriptional modulator acting between epigenetic regulators and transcriptional factors during embryonic axis formation.

<p>Pancreatic cancer is the fourth most lethal cancer and ranks as the eighth most commonly diagnosed cancer worldwide. This is due to its rapid proliferation, strong metastatic potential and its delayed detection. One major risk factor for developing pancreatic cancer is the aggressive inflammatory disease chronic pancreatitis. Chronic inflammation frequently precedes the development of certain pancreatic cancers.</p><p>Inflammation is a protective and necessary process by which the body can alert the immune system of the existence of a wound or infection and mount an immune response to remove the harmful stimuli and start wound healing. The cross-talking of cells of the immune system and infected cells happens through cytokines, soluble proteins that activate and recruit other immune cells to increase the system’s response to the pathogen. Failure to resolve the injury can result in persistent cytokine production that in turn allows a cell that is damaged or altered to survive when in normal conditions it would be killed. Inflammation is thought to create a microenvironment that facilitates the initiation and/or growth of pancreatic cancer cells.</p><p>Cytokines use two important kinases for their signaling: Janus Kinases (JAKs) and Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription (STATs). The JAKs are activated upon the binding of cytokines to their corresponding receptors. When activated, the JAKs activate STATs through tyrosine phosphorylation. The STATs transduce signals to the nucleus of the cells to induce expression of critical genes essential in normal physiological cellular events such as differentiation, proliferation, cell survival, apoptosis and angiogenesis. STAT3 (a member of the STAT family) is constitutively activated in some pancreatic cancers, promoting cell cycle progression, cellular transformations and preventing apoptosis. Therefore, STAT3 is a promising target for cancer treatment. Novel therapies that inhibit STAT3 activity in cancers are urgently needed. Natural products are a very good resource for the discovery of new drugs against pancreatic cancer.</p><p>Covering more than 70% of the Earths surface, The Ocean is an excellent source of bioactive natural products. Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute’s Center for Marine Biomedical and Biotechnology Research (HBOI-CMBBR) situated in Florida, aims to find new marine natural products useful in disease prevention and drug therapy. Their current focus is to look for novel treatments for preventing both the formation of new pancreatic tumors and the metastasis of existing tumors.</p><p>The hypothesis of this degree project was that novel inhibitors of STAT3 useful in the treatment of pancreatitis and/or pancreatic cancer could be found from marine-natural products. The first specific aim of this degree project was to set up an assay to identify bioactive marine natural products as inhibitors of inflammation. Furthermore the assay was validated using a commercially available inhibitor of inflammation (Cucurbitacin I). The last aim was to further validate the assay by screening pure compounds and peak library material from the HBOI marine specimen collection.</p><p>At the end of the experimentation time, the assay still was not set-up as there were difficulties in proper cell culture techniques and the cell line did not respond as advertised. While the results were not as expected, the work performed resulted in familiarization with research laboratory practices and increased laboratory skills. Moreover, the results from the assays point to future directions to accomplish this project.</p> / Development of a screening assay for inhibitors of inflammation useful against pancreatic cancer

<p>Multiple myeloma (MM) is a virtually incurable B cell malignancy of the bone marrow. One important part of tumor progression and an obstacle for successful therapy is resistance to apoptosis. To combat this resistance, the mechanisms of apoptosis and survival in MM must be better defined. </p><p>In this thesis, we identified Fas up-regulation as a mechanism underlying interferon (IFN)-mediated sensitization to Fas-induced apoptosis in the MM cell line U-266-1970. IFN treatment induced activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (Stat)1 but, intriguingly, also attenuated activation of MM survival factor Stat3. </p><p>Exploring the role of Stat1 further, we established sub-lines of U-266-1970 with a stable over-expression of Stat1 and of its active mutant Stat1C. These sub-lines displayed a decreased expression and activation of Stat3, and an altered expression of apoptosis-related genes Harakiri, Bcl-2 and Mcl-1. In a drug library screening, Stat1 over-expression was associated with an increased sensitivity to Fas-induced apoptosis and, conversely, an increased resistance to several drugs, including the cyclin dependent kinase (cdk)1 inhibitor CGP74514A. We conclude that Stat1 over-expression does not confer a general resistance or sensitivity to apoptosis in MM, but may strongly affect the response to some specific drugs.</p><p>We also explored the effects of picropodophyllin (PPP), an inhibitor of the insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK), in MM. PPP selectively inhibited the IGF-I RTK activity without inhibiting the insulin RTK activity. Furthermore, PPP potently induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in all MM cell lines and patient samples tested, also in the presence of survival factors IGF-I and IL-6. We conclude that PPP has great therapeutic potential in MM </p><p>Finally, we examined the expression and regulation of the inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) in a panel of MM cell lines and patient samples. The glucocorticoid dexamethasone, which is used in MM therapy, induced a transient up-regulation and a subsequent down-regulation of c-IAP2, as well as a down-regulation of XIAP, possibly influencing the sensitivity to apoptosis induced by this drug. Supporting this notion, abrogation of IGF-IR signaling by PPP, which sensitizes MM cells to dexamethasone-induced apoptosis, enhanced the down-regulation of c-IAP2 and XIAP.</p>

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a virtually incurable B cell malignancy of the bone marrow. One important part of tumor progression and an obstacle for successful therapy is resistance to apoptosis. To combat this resistance, the mechanisms of apoptosis and survival in MM must be better defined. In this thesis, we identified Fas up-regulation as a mechanism underlying interferon (IFN)-mediated sensitization to Fas-induced apoptosis in the MM cell line U-266-1970. IFN treatment induced activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (Stat)1 but, intriguingly, also attenuated activation of MM survival factor Stat3. Exploring the role of Stat1 further, we established sub-lines of U-266-1970 with a stable over-expression of Stat1 and of its active mutant Stat1C. These sub-lines displayed a decreased expression and activation of Stat3, and an altered expression of apoptosis-related genes Harakiri, Bcl-2 and Mcl-1. In a drug library screening, Stat1 over-expression was associated with an increased sensitivity to Fas-induced apoptosis and, conversely, an increased resistance to several drugs, including the cyclin dependent kinase (cdk)1 inhibitor CGP74514A. We conclude that Stat1 over-expression does not confer a general resistance or sensitivity to apoptosis in MM, but may strongly affect the response to some specific drugs. We also explored the effects of picropodophyllin (PPP), an inhibitor of the insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK), in MM. PPP selectively inhibited the IGF-I RTK activity without inhibiting the insulin RTK activity. Furthermore, PPP potently induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in all MM cell lines and patient samples tested, also in the presence of survival factors IGF-I and IL-6. We conclude that PPP has great therapeutic potential in MM Finally, we examined the expression and regulation of the inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) in a panel of MM cell lines and patient samples. The glucocorticoid dexamethasone, which is used in MM therapy, induced a transient up-regulation and a subsequent down-regulation of c-IAP2, as well as a down-regulation of XIAP, possibly influencing the sensitivity to apoptosis induced by this drug. Supporting this notion, abrogation of IGF-IR signaling by PPP, which sensitizes MM cells to dexamethasone-induced apoptosis, enhanced the down-regulation of c-IAP2 and XIAP.

L'axe IL-12-IFN-γ joue un rôle important dans l'immunité anti-mycobactérienne. J'ai identifié et étudié une cohorte de 137 patients présentant un déficit autosomique récessif complet d'IL12RB1 qui code la sous-unité β1 des récepteurs de l'IL-12 et de l'IL-23. Ces patients sont issus de 101 familles provenant de 30 pays. Ils présentent une grande diversité génétique avec 52 allèles mutants différents. Le phénotype cellulaire avec un défaut complet de réponse à l'IL-12 est homogène chez tous les patients. Les phénotypes cliniques sont eux très hétérogènes allant de l'absence d'infection jusqu'au décès. Il s'agit en grande majorité d'infections mycobactériennes (BCG, mycobactéries environnementales et tuberculose) et/ou à salmonelles. La candidose est aussi retrouvée associée à ce défaut chez un grand nombre de patients. L'axe IL-23-IL-17 participe à la différentiation et à l'activation des lymphocytes T CD4+ dits de type Th17. les cytokines et les mécanismes contrôlant la différentiation de ces cellules sont peu connus. J'ai étudié le développement des lymphocytes producteurs d'IL-17 chez des patients porteurs de défauts génétiques affectant la voie du TGF-β (patients TGFBR1, TGFBR2 et TGFB1), de l'IL-1β (patients IRAK4 et MYD88), de l'IL-6 (patients STAT3) et de l'IL-23 (patients IL12B et IL12RB1). Pour cela, j'ai quantifié la production et la sécrétion d'IL-17 dans deux modèles expérimentaux ex vivo et in vitro. Les patients IL12B-/- et IL12RB1-/-, et de façon plus drastique les patients STAT3-/- présentent une diminution des lymphocytes producteurs d'IL-17, ce qui suggère l'importance de ces molécules dans la différentiation et l'expansion des cellules Th17 in vivo

Les douleurs neuropathiques sont associées dans la moelle épinière à des altérations neuronales et gliales. Ces cellules libèrent des médiateurs inflammatoires comme l'interleukine-6, jouant un rôle pro-nociceptif et qui active principalement la voie JAK/STAT3. Dans ce contexte, nous avons étudié l'implication éventuelle de la voie dans ce type de douleurs. Dans différent modèles de lésions de nerf périphérique chez le rat, la voie JAK/STAT3 spinale est activée de façon précoce et prolongée, surtout dans la microglie. L'inhibition de cette voie par un agent pharmacologique a démontré son implication dans la genèse de l'hypersensibilité douloureuse. Pour inhiber plus spécifiquement la voie JAK/STAT3, nous avons injecté dans la corne dorsale de la moelle épinière un vecteur lentiviral à fort tropisme glial (LV-SOCS3). L'injection préventive de ce vecteur chez des rats neuropathiques diminue l'expression d'IL-6, ATF3 et MCP-1 et réduit fortement l'hypersensibilité mécanique.

Successful axon regeneration appears to depend on the development of an injury response. Dorsal root ganglion neurons exemplify the necessity of this injury response in a unique way. Peripheral nerve transection leads to development of an injury response and successful regeneration whereas central root transection does neither. The injury response may involve extracellular and intracellular pathways. To investigate the extraneuronal influences, we performed nerve transection of either the central or peripheral axon branches and studied the expression of GAP-43, a key growth associated protein, and the transcription factors ATF3, c-Jun, and STAT3. Our results show that the responses to peripheral versus central nerve transection are fundamentally different. Peripheral but not central nerve transection increases GAP-43, ATF3, and c-Jun expression. STAT3, however, is upregulated as a result of central but not peripheral nerve transection. To investigate potential intracellular signalling pathways, we applied FGF-2, an extracellular mitogen, or an analog of cAMP, an intracellular second messenger to the cut end of the peripheral axon. Our results indicate that FGF-2 and cAMP act as activators of GAP-43 expression. On the other hand, FGF-2 and cAMP act to downregulate the expression of ATF3. FGF-2 upregulates c-Jun and the activated form of STAT3. Paradoxically, the regulation of GAP-43 expression by cAMP or by FGF-2 in vivo shows opposing results from the previously reported in vitro studies. Our present results suggest that the peripheral nerve injury response may be governed by at least three different signalling pathways.

Favorisant plusieurs altérations physiologiques et autres conditions telle l'instabilité génomique, l'inflammation chronique joue un rôle central de l'initiation jusqu'au développement du cancer. Cette condition requiert la contribution de plusieurs types cellulaires et de médiateurs inflammatoires telle que la protéine transductrice du signal et activatrice de la transcription 3 (STAT3). Cette dernière est un médiateur majeur dans l'induction et le maintien d'un microenvironnement tumoral inflammatoire. En effet, la phosphorylation de STAT3 est essentielle à la régulation et à la transcription de plusieurs facteurs de croissance et cytokines incluant la cyclooxygénase-2 (COX)-2 et l'interleukine-6 (IL6), mais par son rôle de transducteur, elle répond aussi à plusieurs stimuli tant endogènes qu'environnementaux. Une des voies les plus importantes à cet effet est celle de JAK/STAT3. Une boucle rétroactive d'activation de STAT3 alimente d'ailleurs les processus impliqués dans le développement tumoral comme la prolifération, l'anti-apoptose, l'angiogenèse et la métastase. Les objectifs de notre étude sont, dans un premier temps, d'évaluer les effets de 5 polyphénols connus pour leur propriété anti-angiogénique; la lutéoline (Lut), l'apigénine (Api), l'épigallocatéchine gallate (EGCG), la delphinidine (Dp) et l'acide éllagique (EA), sur différentes étapes de l'angiogenèse déclenchée par l'IL-6 et d'en déterminer le mécanisme d'action au niveau moléculaire. Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons évalué chez les cellules souches mésenchymateuses (MSC) ayant un phénotype pro-inflammatoire induit par la concanavaline A (ConA), l'implication de la métalloprotéinase membranaire matricielle de type-1 (MT1-MMP) dans l'activation de STAT3 et l'expression de COX-2. Les résultats ont montré principalement que la Lut et l'Api inhibent très significativement la prolifération, la migration et la tubulogenèse des cellules endothéliales (EC) induite par l'IL-6 via la voie JAK/STAT3. En deuxième lieu, chez les MSC, la MT1-MMP semble être un contributeur important dans le phénotype pro-inflammatoire et implique également la voie JAK/STAT3. De façon inattendue l'inactivation de STAT3 potentialise l'expression de COX-2. Étant donné que les MSC sont recrutées aux sites inflammatoires de plusieurs cancers, ces résultats confirment l'importance de la MT1-MMP dans la régulation de la signalisation intracellulaire pro-inflammatoire des MSC. L'action double de STAT3 régulé par la MT1-MMP, montre son rôle majeur comme contributeur dans l'équilibre de l'expression de COX-2. Ce mécanisme permettrait ainsi aux MSC de s'adapter au microenvironnement inflammatoire pro-tumoral. Connaissant la diversité des polyphénols d'origine alimentaire et leur potentiel anti-inflammatoire, anti-angiogénique et anticancéreux on a aussi montré dans le cadre de cette étude que le potentiel de l'activité anti -inflammatoire de la Lut et d'Api permet, en partie d'expliquer leur activité anti-angiogénique et anti-cancer. Ainsi, ces flavones pourraient non seulement servir de base de recherche d'agents thérapeutiques anti-angiogéniques minimisant la résistance aux agents chimiothérapeutiques, mais aussi mettre en lumière le rôle majeur de l'alimentation dans la prévention du cancer. ______________________________________________________________________________ MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : STAT3, MT1-MMP, angiogenèse, inflammation, IL6, COX-2

Successful axon regeneration appears to depend on the development of an injury response. Dorsal root ganglion neurons exemplify the necessity of this injury response in a unique way. Peripheral nerve transection leads to development of an injury response and successful regeneration whereas central root transection does neither. The injury response may involve extracellular and intracellular pathways. To investigate the extraneuronal influences, we performed nerve transection of either the central or peripheral axon branches and studied the expression of GAP-43, a key growth associated protein, and the transcription factors ATF3, c-Jun, and STAT3. Our results show that the responses to peripheral versus central nerve transection are fundamentally different. Peripheral but not central nerve transection increases GAP-43, ATF3, and c-Jun expression. STAT3, however, is upregulated as a result of central but not peripheral nerve transection. To investigate potential intracellular signalling pathways, we applied FGF-2, an extracellular mitogen, or an analog of cAMP, an intracellular second messenger to the cut end of the peripheral axon. Our results indicate that FGF-2 and cAMP act as activators of GAP-43 expression. On the other hand, FGF-2 and cAMP act to downregulate the expression of ATF3. FGF-2 upregulates c-Jun and the activated form of STAT3. Paradoxically, the regulation of GAP-43 expression by cAMP or by FGF-2 in vivo shows opposing results from the previously reported in vitro studies. Our present results suggest that the peripheral nerve injury response may be governed by at least three different signalling pathways.