This thesis explores the following research question: what factors explain the relationship between levels of government over the implementation of European Union regional policy? Debates in political science and economics in the late 1980s and early 1990s considered whether a Europe of the Regions provided a model for the future economic and political order of Europe. Although these debates informed our understanding of European Union policy making, they have now moved on. The theoretical framework for this thesis tests the extent to which European integration can be explained by processes of multi-level governance, and not by the previously dominant systems of intergovernmentalism. Furthermore, much of the previous theoretical work on European integration has drawn from the earlier stages of policy making (on budgetary decisions, and on institutional and regulatory design). This thesis considers instead the neglected area of the implementation of the Structural Funds in two regions (Yorkshire and Humberside, and Lorraine). Using policy networks tools of analysis it tests the explanatory capability of multi-level governance in the following areas: the variation in policy implementation between the United Kingdom and France; the patterns of resource mobilisation in policy implementation; and the formation of regional economic strategies. The main findings of this thesis show that where domestic regional policy frameworks are weak (e.g. in the United Kingdom), the European Commission has been able to effectively mobilise resources at critical phases of policy implementation - such as during the negotiation of economic strategies. However, over the longer term, the direction the Structural Funds have taken is driven by actors and institutions outside those directly involved in the implementation of the Structural Funds. That is, both DG XVI of the European Commission and the regions themselves have limited opportunities to influence the course of European political integration.

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Progressive child-centred education has led to the ascendancy of look and say methods for children learning to read, perpetuating the use of a guessing strategy and promoting a dependency culture. Explicit synthetic phonics with direct teaching of the alphabetic principle has been replaced by gradual analytic phonics or no phonics, leaving children to discover spelling patterns for themselves. This investigation was directed towards identifying the relationship between different teaching methods and children's progress in word reading, spelling and reading comprehension. Initially, such progress was monitored from 1993-1995 in 12 Primary classes. Analyses of the data collected indicated that (a) accelerated letter-sound knowledge and the ability to blend letter sounds had a significant effect on children's progress in reading, spelling and comprehension and (b) the degree to which blending had been explicitly taught had a significant positive effect on the proportion of spelling errors produced which encode orthographic information. The effects of accelerating letter-sound knowledge and sounding and blending were then examined experimentally in Primary 1 children using two experimental groups and one control group. It was found that explicit synthetic phonics, which demonstrates how letters blend together to form words, (a) accelerated reading, spelling and phonemic awareness more rapidly than just learning the letter sounds at an accelerated pace and (b) produced a higher proportion of mature orthographic spelling errors than in the other conditions. It was found that the strategies children use for decoding and encoding mirror the teaching methods they have experienced. Gradual analytiC phonics teaching encourages phonetic cue reading, children only processing some of the letters and sounds in words. Explicit synthetic phonics teaching encourages early cipher reading, children processing all of the letters and sounds in words. This method teaches children how to use their knowledge of the alphabetic code to decode unknown words, thus establishing an orthographic memory for such words.

Climate change imposes major threats for farming communities in South Asia as increased temperatures and changes in precipitation impact yields. Local farmers in Pakistan are facing similar challenges and the country has already been highly affected by climate change. Further, local knowledge is increasingly being recognized as an important complement to quantitative climate data. There is a need to go beyond the quantitative results in climate change research, and ground proof these data by including local experiences. Many farmers around the world are experiencing climate change and are responding to these with various adaptation strategies. This study examines climate change in the Gujrat and Jhelum districts in the Punjab province in Pakistan, how local farmers perceive climate change and what adaptation strategies local farmers have implemented. The study also intends to examine the main constraints to adaptation by incorporating expert views to analyze issues and gaps in the system. The results show increased temperatures and decreased precipitation in the study region between 1975-2014. Farmer surveys indicate that a majority of the farmers perceive these changes and have applied different adaptation strategies as a response. These strategies mainly consist of: changing planting/sowing time and increased irrigation using groundwater. A third form of response to smaller yields and decreased income was alternative off- farm jobs, as an additional income. Expert interviews reveal contradictions of implementation of climate change adaptation policies along with contrasting responses to the farmers regarding institutional efforts to support the local farmers. These results show how lack of institutional support is hindering effective, successful and long-term adaptation for these farming communities.

Urininkontinens är ett problem alla kan drabbas av. Det innebär att personen läcker urin eller kissar på sig. Det ses som ett vanligt folkhälsoproblem i hela världen och det förekommer mest hos kvinnor. Det påverkar kvinnorna och hämmar dem i det dagliga livet. Hämningen grundar sig i rädsla och oro för att läcka samt lukta urin. Kvinnorna med urininkontinens upplever att ämnet är tabubelagt samt nedtystat och associeras med skamkänslor. De känner en daglig påverkan av urininkontinensen och den planerade livsplanen spricker med en överhängande känsla av maktlöshet samt frustration. De försöker hitta olika sätt att acceptera sina symtom men flertalet av kvinnorna ser symtomen som en oundviklig del av livet. Ett problem som kommer med stigande ålder eller en åkomma efter förlossning. Kvinnor som är äldre än femtio år har lättare att acceptera sin urininkontinens än de som är trettio år. De okontrollerade symtomen ger kvinnorna en känsla av förlorad kroppskontroll och sårbarhet. Detta kan leda till dåligt självförtroende och depression. Kvinnorna begränsas i sociala sammanhang och de hindras att utföra fysiska aktiviteter till följd av nervositet att läcka samt lukta urin. Detta upplevs som en förlust i vardagen. Kvinnorna uttrycker även en försämring i deras sexuella relationer och de känner en svårighet att vara spontana i sexuella aktiviteter. Mindre feminitet och en känsla av att inte vara fräsch uttrycks också av kvinnorna. Till följd av detta känner de en sämre självkänsla. Olika strategier används för att fungera i det dagliga livet. Vilket kan innebära att de anpassar sin klädsel och förbereder sig med extra inkontinensskydd för att dölja fläckar från läckage. De tar även alltid reda på tillgång till toaletter i offentliga miljöer. Ett annat problem dessa kvinnor upplever är ett ignorant bemötande av vårdpersonal och brist på kunskap om urininkontinens. Kvinnorna önskar en mer förstående attityd och bättre kommunikation i vården för att få möjlighet till rätt behandling. Vården har mycket att förbättra i mötet med dessa kvinnor både professionellt samt kunskapsmässigt och i öppenheten till ämnet. Det går inte att förvänta sig att kvinnorna tar sina egna besvär på allvar när inte vårdpersonalen gör det. / Background: Urinary incontinence denotes an involuntary leakage from the bladder which can affect women of all ages, but leakage problems are often more common with rising age. It is a common issue, however there is a large unrecorded number of women who do not seek medical attention for their urinary incontinence. Urinary incontinence is very costly for the society because of the medical and social disability it causes the affected. Aim: To illuminate the experiences of women living with urinary incontinence Method: A literary study was done where nine scientific articles were examined and analyzed according to a five step model. Results: The women experienced their urinary incontinence as taboo and shameful. The issue was too intimate and private and therefore unnatural to talk about. Their leakage lead to fear and nervousness which made them end up in a vulnerable situation. This affected them on several emotional levels both psychosocial, psychological and physical. The women experienced an ignorance and a nonchalant attitude from their care providers which caused an hesitancy in their search of healthcare. They experienced that their bodies were unreliable which lead to a reduced spontaneity and restrictions in life. Conclusion: Urinary incontinence is not solely an issue with leaking urine, it is affecting the women's lives as a whole on many levels. The hindrance that the urinary incontinence caused the women on a daily basis made them feel a sense of loss and affected their joy and zest of life. It requires an improvement of healthcare praxis in order to meet these women in a professional and trustworthy manner.