The goal of this dissertation is to highlight the ambiguities contained in section 61 of the Consumer Protection Act 68 of 2008 (CPA), which attempts to introduce strict product liability for the entire supply chain in the event of product failure, and to propose amendments from which both the consumer as well as the supply chain could benefit. The new dispensation of strict product liability will lead to a step away from the no-fault based liability system that our courts have implemented for decades. Although this system is unfamiliar to South Africa, strict liability regimes have been followed in foreign countries for a considerable period of time. A comparative study of the approaches followed in America and Europe, which both advanced strict product liability regimes, will be undertaken in this study in order to illuminate problematic aspects relating to the concept of defect contained in section 61 of the CPA as well as the various duties of the supply chain in a strict product liability regime. It is argued that the provisions of the CPA ought to be supplemented with regulations, including, but not limited to, the implementation of adequate safety regulations to mitigate product recalls and product liability claims. / Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Mercantile Law / unrestricted

The Concept and Development of Strict Liability in Czech Tort Law and its Inspirational Sources Abstract The thesis deals with an analysis of strict liability in Czech tort law taking into account the inspirational sources of its regulation, including in particular German and Austrian law, the Principles of European Tort Law (PETL) and the Draft of Common Frame of Reference (DCFR). Further, a historical and possible future development of strict liability is analysed as well as the risks for which strict liability is imposed. The thesis is divided into two main parts. The subject-matter of the first General Part is especially the concept of the strict liability and the reasons for its application. Further, some related problems are analysed in this part which are relevant for the legal theory as well for the legal practice (e.g. defences, contributory negligence, possibility of the concurrence of claims). The subsequent Special Part contains an analysis of the types of strict liability and consists of four main chapters. The first chapter deals with a short overview of the historical development of the strict liability in Czech tort law. In the second chapter particular types of liability in the effective Czech Civil Code are presented and critically evaluated. In the third chapter the author deals with some...

Literature regarding the Supreme Court's holdings in Establishment Clause cases suggests the Court's jurisprudence has been inconsistent. Because the Court had both upheld and invalidated challenged governmental actions that relate to religious practices or institutions, a broad overview of the Court's holdings in Establishment Clause cases seems to support that notion. But where does the inconsistency lie: in the tests and criteria used by court members or in the holdings themselves? This thesis suggests that when comparing categories and subsets of the Court's holdings in Establishment Clause cases to one another, the jurisprudence is in fact consistent. This thesis demonstrates where the consistency can be identified and measured in the Court's jurisprudence by analyzing the holdings. The thesis employs three models, Strict-Separationism, Non-Preferentialism, and Accommodationism, to create standardized categories of Supreme Court's holdings, as independent as possible of the reasoning, criteria, or tests applied to the case by the Court members. I grouped the cases included in this study into one or more categories based on which model(s) the Court's actual holding matched. Then I compared cases within each category of holdings to one another across variables (such as actual holding and case types) to measure consistency between the cases. I conclude with an examination of the measured consistency and explanation of identified patterns in the Supreme Court's Establishment Clause holdings. The data indicated that the Court's actual holdings matched the same projected holdings consistently when compared to cases with similar variables. / Master of Arts

The fact that large herbivores, such as Rangifer tarandus, play a part in shaping its environment through grazing and trampling of the ground is widely acknowledged today, as well as that these factors have the potential of affecting regional patterns and even global climate. This study investigated whether a considerable increase in grazing by R. tarandus for 25 years resulted in any measurable effects on the diversity of plant species in tundra vegetation. We evaluated if any differences in species composition could be found, based on differences in grazing pressure and productivity of the soil. The effect of difference in grazing pressure was studied through analysis of vegetation at 30 sites, each site comparing two different classes of grazing pressure separated by a fence, and pellets from R. tarandus were counted along transects. We did not find any evidence that the difference in grazing pressure affected the species composition on either side of the fence, depending on the site. The lack of difference in plant species composition may be explained by insufficient differences in abundance of R. tarandus, insufficient time passed since the change in grazing pressure, or varying grazing seasons at the sites on either side of the fence.

The United States has a drug issue that is perpetually problematic. Efforts are being made on every level of government to reduce drug use and deter current and potential future users. Some of these efforts however are putting citizen's rights at risk in a manner that threatens the United States Constitution that hails over both the state and federal governments. My thesis will examine Florida's avant-garde approach to simplifying drug convictions through unprecedented legislation that has already been ruled unconstitutional on its face by the United States District Court for the Middle District of Florida. The decade long struggle will soon culminate in the Florida Supreme Court, and if found unconstitutional, could potentially impact thousands of inmates among other legal consequences. Through literature review and case study I will discuss the history of this issue and conclude by discussing possible rulings of the Florida Supreme Court in State v. Adkins, SC11-1878 (2D11-4559, 2nd DCA). In addition, I will analyze the case timeline that led to the legislative action which is being called into question in Adkins. I hypothesize that the ruling in Adkins will declare Florida's drug statute unconstitutional; however, I further presume that the currently incarcerated defendants will continue to serve their sentences virtually unaffected by the ruling, with some extraordinary exceptions. First, I will discuss the underlying legal premises, succeeded by an analysis of all pertinent case law and literature to assess the constitutionality of Florida's drug statute to further support my hypothesis. My goal for this thesis is to give perspective to the layperson as well as contribute to the statewide legal community through my organization of the subject, and analysis of case law.

vegetation and soil carbon-and nitrogen cycles in a grazing area through food selection, consumption, fertilization, and trampling. There have been discussions on how reindeer grazing, plant communities, and different ecosystems relate to each other and how the management of protected areas should proceed based on various laws, recommendations, and perspectives. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of reindeer grazing on biodiversity in northern Scandinavia and thus be able to support these discussions. Inventory data was collected in 1995 on both sides of the fence that demarcates Norway from Malla National Park in Finland. At the time of the inventory, reindeer husbandry had been prohibited on the Finnish side of the fence for several decades, creating a difference in grazing pressure between the inventory areas. A statistical comparison was made between the number of plant species for six different functional plant groups divided into four different soil moisture types between the two countries, as well as a comparison of the number of reindeer droppings per study area in each country to quantify the difference in grazing pressure. The results show that there were more grass species in meadow areas and more reindeer droppings on the Norwegian side. I found no significant difference for the other functional plant groups or for the grasses in the other soil moisture types. Based on these results, I conclude that reindeer may increase the number of grass species in meadow areas.

Face aux changements globaux, au déclin de la biodiversité et à l'augmentation de la population urbaine, la demande des professionnels de la construction pour intégrer la biodiversité dans leurs pratiques est de plus en plus forte. Ma thèse a eu pour objectif de (1) faire un état des lieux de la prise en compte de la biodiversité dans les aménagements urbains et (2) développer de nouveaux outils afin d'aider les aménageurs à améliorer leurs pratiques. Dans une première partie consacrée au bilan biodiversité, (1) nous avons émis des doutes quant à la pertinence de l'utilisation des toitures végétalisées, telles qu'elles sont conçues actuellement, en tant qu'éléments intégrés à un réseau écologique ; (2) l'étude des mesures environnementales mises en place dans 54 éco‐quartiers européens (principalement en France) a montré que les concepteurs se préoccupaient principalement des bénéfices environnementaux en termes d'énergie, de transport, de déchets et d'eau, et plus rarement de biodiversité ; (3) l'ACV (analyse du cycle de vie), un outil fréquemment utilisés par les aménageurs pour calculer les impacts environnementaux d'un produit (toit vert, bâtiment, quartier) intègre mal la biodiversité dans ses calculs, et son utilisation pour comparer différents éléments verts pourrait uniformiser les pratiques et ainsi conduire à une homogénéisation de la biodiversité et à l'altération du fonctionnement de l'écosystème. Pour aider les aménageurs à mieux considérer la biodiversité dans leurs pratiques, nous avons participé à l'amélioration de l'outil Profil-Biodiversité créé par Frank Derrien et développé notre propre outil (BioDi(v)Strict) basé sur la diversité des habitats et la présence de quatre groupes d'espèces bio-indicatrices afin de traduire au mieux la dynamique écologique d'un site. Ces deux outils ont été appliqués sur un site pilote : la Cité Descartes (à Noisy-le- Grand et Champs-sur-Marne). Dans le but de faire émerger une prise de conscience des différents acteurs locaux sur la nécessité de préserver la biodiversité et les services écosystémiques associés, nous avons développé un outil de concertation pour l'aménagement du territoire (NewDistrict), basé sur une modélisation d'un système multi-agents (SMA) et d'un jeu de rôles autour de l'étalement urbain et ses conséquences environnementales. / In a context of global changes, decline of biodiversity and increase of the urban population, the request of urban developers to integrate biodiversity into their practices is increasingly strong. My PhD thesis aimed to (1) make a review of the consideration of biodiversity in urban development, and (2) develop new tools to help developers to improve their practices. In the first part focused on biodiversity review, (1) we have expressed some doubts about the relevance of the use of current green roofs as possible integrated element of an ecological network; (2) The study of environmental measures implemented in 54 European eco-districts (mainly in France) showed that designers appeared to focus primarily on environmental benefits in terms of energy, transport, waste, water, and more rarely on biodiversity conservation; (3) LCA (life cycle analysis), a tool commonly used by developers to calculate the environmental impacts of a product (a green roof , a building or a district) integrates badly biodiversity in its calculations, and its use to compare different green elements could standardize practices which lead to an homogenization of biodiversity associated with the deterioration of ecosystem functioning. To help developers to better consider biodiversity in their practices, we have firstly contributed to the improvement of the tool «Profil-Biodiversité» created by Frank Derrien, and secondly, we have developed our own tool (BioDi(v)Strict) based on the diversity of habitats and the presence of four groups of bioindicator species to better reflect the ecological dynamic of a site. Both tools have been applied on a pilot site: the Cité Descartes (in Noisy-le- Grand and Champs-sur‐Marne). Finally, in order to let emerging a collective biodiversity awareness for the different local actors, we have developed a tool (NewDistrict) based on a multi‐agent system (MAS) model combined with a role-playing game constructed in a context of urban sprawl.

Instrumentos financeiros híbridos e/ou compostos têm sido tema constante em matéria de regulação contábil. A literatura positiva apresenta uma hipótese que ajuda a compreender o porquê de algumas firmas recorrerem a ditos instrumentos para captar recursos: nível de endividamento no limite de quebra de covenants contratuais. No Brasil, firmas com registro na CVM, que se utilizaram desses instrumentos, classificando-os no patrimônio líquido, tiveram suas ITRs e/ou DFs reapresentadas e/ou republicadas por determinação da CVM. O ponto crítico de toda a discussão reside na distinção entre um item de passivo e um item de patrimônio líquido. Esse tema está disciplinado na IAS 32 (PT CPC n. 39) e presente no Discussion Paper - A review of the conceptual framework for financial reporting, emitido pelo IASB em julho de 2013, que apresenta duas abordagens que podem ser utilizadas, visando a simplificar a distinção entre um item de passivo e de patrimônio líquido: a narrow equity approach - NEA e a strict obligation approach - SOA. A adoção de cada uma dessas abordagens terá um impacto diferente nos níveis de endividamento/alavancagem e no potencial de diluição de participação dos acionistas. Este trabalho tem como objetivo investigar abordagens para a classificação contábil das debêntures mandatoriamente conversíveis em ações, vis-à-vis a IAS 32 (PT CPC n. 39) e o Discussion Paper do IASB (NEA x SOA). A metodologia adotada é um estudo de caso de uma companhia aberta brasileira, que em 2010 emitiu debêntures mandatoriamente conversíveis e efetuou uma classificação desses instrumentos considerada inadequada pelo órgão regulador. Observa-se que a strict obligation approach é a abordagem que impacta menos no nível de endividamento, enquanto a narrow equity approach é a que apresenta maior alavancagem. As evidências sugerem os covenants contratuais como possíveis indutores de tal prática, fato que está em linha com o que a literatura da área documenta como fenômeno esperado. É bem verdade que no caso concreto, houve quebra contínua de covenants contratuais, corroborando a hipótese apresentada por SILVA (2008) de que o baixo custo de violação de covenants contribua para tal situação. Alternativamente, uma possível explicação para a escolha contábil da companhia reside na complexidade da IAS 32 (PT CPC 39) e desconhecimento de suas nuances. / Hybrid financial instruments and/or compounds has been a constant theme regarding accounting regulation. The positive literature presents a hypothesis that help to understand why some companies appeal to said instruments to raise funds: Indebtedness level on the breach limit of contractual covenants. In Brazil, companies with CVM register, that used these instruments, sorting them on the equity, had their quarterly statements and/or financial statements restated and/or republished by CVM resolution. The critical point of the whole discussion lies in the distinction between a liability item and an equity item. This subject is covered in the IAS 32 (PT CPC n. 39) and is present in "Discussion Paper - A review of the conceptual framework for financial reporting", issued by IASB in July 2013, having two approaches that can be used, order to simplify the distinction between an item of liabilities and equity: the narrow equity approach - NEA and the strict obligation approach - SOA. The adoption of each of these approaches have a different impact on levels of debt / leverage and the potential dilution of the shareholding. This work aims to investigate approaches to accounting classification of mandatorily convertible debentures, vis-à-vis the IAS 32 (PT CPC n. 39) and the Discussion Paper of the IASB (NEA x SOA).The methodology used is a case study of a Brazilian corporation, that in 2010 issued mandatorily convertible debentures and made a classification of these instruments deemed inappropriate by the regulator. It can be observed that the strict obligation approach is the approach that impacts least on the level of indebtedness, while the narrow equity approach is the one that have the most leverage. Evidence suggests the contractual covenants as potencial inducers of such practice, fact which is in accordance with the literature documenting the area as a phenomenon expected. It is true that in the case in, there was continuous breach of the contractual covenants, corroborating the hypothesis presented by SILVA (2008) that the low cost of violation of covenants contribute to such a situation. Alternatively, a possible explanation for the choice of the accounting company is the complexity of IAS 32 (PT CPC 39) and ignorance of its nuances.

Instrumentos financeiros híbridos e/ou compostos têm sido tema constante em matéria de regulação contábil. A literatura positiva apresenta uma hipótese que ajuda a compreender o porquê de algumas firmas recorrerem a ditos instrumentos para captar recursos: nível de endividamento no limite de quebra de covenants contratuais. No Brasil, firmas com registro na CVM, que se utilizaram desses instrumentos, classificando-os no patrimônio líquido, tiveram suas ITRs e/ou DFs reapresentadas e/ou republicadas por determinação da CVM. O ponto crítico de toda a discussão reside na distinção entre um item de passivo e um item de patrimônio líquido. Esse tema está disciplinado na IAS 32 (PT CPC n. 39) e presente no Discussion Paper - A review of the conceptual framework for financial reporting, emitido pelo IASB em julho de 2013, que apresenta duas abordagens que podem ser utilizadas, visando a simplificar a distinção entre um item de passivo e de patrimônio líquido: a narrow equity approach - NEA e a strict obligation approach - SOA. A adoção de cada uma dessas abordagens terá um impacto diferente nos níveis de endividamento/alavancagem e no potencial de diluição de participação dos acionistas. Este trabalho tem como objetivo investigar abordagens para a classificação contábil das debêntures mandatoriamente conversíveis em ações, vis-à-vis a IAS 32 (PT CPC n. 39) e o Discussion Paper do IASB (NEA x SOA). A metodologia adotada é um estudo de caso de uma companhia aberta brasileira, que em 2010 emitiu debêntures mandatoriamente conversíveis e efetuou uma classificação desses instrumentos considerada inadequada pelo órgão regulador. Observa-se que a strict obligation approach é a abordagem que impacta menos no nível de endividamento, enquanto a narrow equity approach é a que apresenta maior alavancagem. As evidências sugerem os covenants contratuais como possíveis indutores de tal prática, fato que está em linha com o que a literatura da área documenta como fenômeno esperado. É bem verdade que no caso concreto, houve quebra contínua de covenants contratuais, corroborando a hipótese apresentada por SILVA (2008) de que o baixo custo de violação de covenants contribua para tal situação. Alternativamente, uma possível explicação para a escolha contábil da companhia reside na complexidade da IAS 32 (PT CPC 39) e desconhecimento de suas nuances. / Hybrid financial instruments and/or compounds has been a constant theme regarding accounting regulation. The positive literature presents a hypothesis that help to understand why some companies appeal to said instruments to raise funds: Indebtedness level on the breach limit of contractual covenants. In Brazil, companies with CVM register, that used these instruments, sorting them on the equity, had their quarterly statements and/or financial statements restated and/or republished by CVM resolution. The critical point of the whole discussion lies in the distinction between a liability item and an equity item. This subject is covered in the IAS 32 (PT CPC n. 39) and is present in "Discussion Paper - A review of the conceptual framework for financial reporting", issued by IASB in July 2013, having two approaches that can be used, order to simplify the distinction between an item of liabilities and equity: the narrow equity approach - NEA and the strict obligation approach - SOA. The adoption of each of these approaches have a different impact on levels of debt / leverage and the potential dilution of the shareholding. This work aims to investigate approaches to accounting classification of mandatorily convertible debentures, vis-à-vis the IAS 32 (PT CPC n. 39) and the Discussion Paper of the IASB (NEA x SOA).The methodology used is a case study of a Brazilian corporation, that in 2010 issued mandatorily convertible debentures and made a classification of these instruments deemed inappropriate by the regulator. It can be observed that the strict obligation approach is the approach that impacts least on the level of indebtedness, while the narrow equity approach is the one that have the most leverage. Evidence suggests the contractual covenants as potencial inducers of such practice, fact which is in accordance with the literature documenting the area as a phenomenon expected. It is true that in the case in, there was continuous breach of the contractual covenants, corroborating the hypothesis presented by SILVA (2008) that the low cost of violation of covenants contribute to such a situation. Alternatively, a possible explanation for the choice of the accounting company is the complexity of IAS 32 (PT CPC 39) and ignorance of its nuances.

Magister Legum - LLM