Secreted by adipose tissue, leptin acts as a signal of energy reserve status, and acts in the brain as a negative feedback mechanism to suppress food intake and increase energy expenditure, the net effect of which is maintenance of energy homeostasis. In addition to its role as a satiety factor, leptin has widespread autonomic effects, increasing sympathetic tone to a variety of tissues, including those involved in arterial pressure regulation. Thus, leptin has been implicated as a critical link between obesity and hypertension. However, the specific mechanisms whereby leptin elicits its diverse effects are not fully understood. This is further complicated by the many sites of leptin action within the brain, as well as its diverse intracellular effects. Here, we investigate the possibility that distinct aspects of leptin function are controlled by different neuronal populations and/or molecular signaling cascades. Specifically, we identify unique roles for leptin action on POMC and AgRP neurons in differentially mediating the regional sympathetic effects of leptin. Furthermore, we show that leptin action via mTORC1 is required for the cardiovascular sympathetic but not the metabolic effects. Together, these findings point to complex neuroanatomical and molecular differences in the mechanisms underlying leptin’s effects on different physiological processes, with important implications for future research into obesity-associated hypertension.

Experiments were performed to test the postulate that exercise training (ExT) improves the blunted renal excretory response to acute volume expansion (VE), in part, by normalizing the neural component of the volume reflex typically observed in chronic heart failure (HF). Diuretic and natriuretic responses to acute VE were examined in sedentary and ExT groups of rats with either HF or sham-operated controls. Experiments were performed in anesthetized (Inactin) rats 6 wk after coronary ligation surgery. Histological data indicated that there was a 34.9 ± 3.0% outer and 42.5 ± 3.2% inner infarct of the myocardium in the HF group. Sham rats had no observable damage to the myocardium. In sedentary rats with HF, VE produced a blunted diuresis (46% of sham) and natriuresis (35% of sham) compared with sham-operated control rats. However, acute VE-induced diuresis and natriuresis in ExT rats with HF were comparable to sham rats and significantly higher than sedentary HF rats. Renal denervation abolished the salutary effects of ExT on renal excretory response to acute VE in HF. Since glomerular filtration rates were not significantly different between the groups, renal hemodynamic changes may not account for the blunted renal responses in rats with HF. Additional experiments confirmed that renal sympathetic nerve activity responses to acute VE were blunted in sedentary HF rats; however, ExT normalized the renal sympathoinhibition in HF rats. These results confirm an impairment of neurally mediated excretory responses to acute VE in rats with HF. ExT restored the blunted excretory responses as well as the renal sympathoinhibitory response to acute VE in HF rats. Thus the beneficial effects of ExT on cardiovascular regulation in HF may be partly due to improvement of the neural component of volume reflex. Copyright © 2006 the American Physiological Society.

国立情報学研究所で電子化したコンテンツを使用している。

国立情報学研究所で電子化したコンテンツを使用している。

The mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) is an evolutionary conserved serine/threonine kinase regulating diverse cellular functions, including cell growth, protein synthesis and sensing nutrients and energy status. Prior studies have identified the involvement of hypothalamic mTORC1 in the control of energy balance, renal sympathetic activation and blood pressure regulation. Hypothalamic insulin receptor signaling through the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) is known to regulate energy homeostasis and sympathetic nerve activity (SNA). We examined the role of hypothalamic mTORC1 in the anorectic and sympathetic effects of central insulin. mTORC1 inhibition by rapamycin or PI3K mutation resulted in blunted regional SNA responses to insulin. Rapamycin also blunted appetite-suppressing and body weight-reducing effects of insulin. Furthermore, biochemical analyses revealed PI3K-dependent activation of mTORC1 pathway by insulin in the arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus (ARC), where insulin initiates its central actions. These results indicate the significant contribution of mTORC1 pathway in the ARC to the central action of insulin on the regulation of energy homeostasis and SNA. Angiotensin II (Ang II) is a vasoconstrictive and anti-diuretic peptide produced in the renin-angiotensin system (RAS). Local brain RAS plays an important role in the control of blood pressure, electrolyte and fluid balance. Stimulation of Ang type 1 receptor (AT1R) by Ang II in the cardiovascular brain nuclei triggers drinking and pressor responses. Chronic Ang II action in CNS leads to transcriptional neuromodulation, which in turn, contributes to the development and maintenance of hypertension. Intracellular signaling cascades responsible for neuronal Ang II's actions include PI3K and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathways, which are known upstream effectors of mTORC1 in peripheral tissues. We investigated the involvement of mTORC1 signaling in the brain Ang II actions. Ang II was capable of activating mTORC1 in neuronal cell line and mouse brain, however mTORC1 inhibition had no influence on the drinking and pressor responses to Ang II. Moreover, we found an upregulated mTORC1 activity in the SFO of hypertensive transgenic mice with overactive brain RAS (sRA mice). Importantly, mTORC1 inhibition normalized systolic blood pressure in sRA mice. These results support a potential role of mTORC1 in the maintenance of neurogenic hypertension. Overall, data presented in this thesis provide a better understanding of neuronal mTORC1 function as a key effector component of insulin or Ang II-mediating regulation of physiological and pathophysiological processes.

No description available.

Modest recovery of somatic function after incomplete spinal cord injury (SCI) has been widely demonstrated. Recently we have shown that spontaneous recovery of baroreflex regulation of sympathetic activity also occurs in rats. Dietary restriction in the form of every other day fasting (EODF) has been shown to have beneficial effects on the recovery of motor function after SCI in rats. The goal of this study was to determine if EODF augments the improvement of baroreflex regulation of sympathetic activity after chronic left thoracic (T8) surgical spinal hemisection. To determine this, we performed baroreflex tests on ad-lib fed or EODF rats 1 week or 7 weeks after left T8 spinal hemisection. One week after T8 left hemisection baroreflex testing revealed that gain of baroreflex responsiveness, as well as the ability to increase renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) at low arterial pressure, was significantly impaired in the ad-lib fed but not the EODF rats compared with sham lesioned control rats. However, baroreflex tests performed 7 weeks after T8 left hemisection revealed the inability of both ad-lib and EODF rats to decrease RSNA at elevated arterial pressures. While there is evidence to suggest that EODF has beneficial effects on the recovery of motor function in rats, EODF did not significantly improve the recovery of baroreflex regulation of sympathetic activity.

This thesis is concerned with the neurocircuitry that underpins the cardiovascular response to exercise, which has thus far remained incompletely understood. Small animal studies have provided clues, but with the advent of functional neurosurgery, it has now been made possible to translate these findings to humans. Chapter One reviews the background to the studies in this thesis. Our current understanding of the cardiovascular response to exercise is considered, followed by a discussion on the anatomy and function of various brain nuclei. In particular, the rationale for targeting the periaqueductal grey (PAG) and the subthalamic nucleus (STN) is reviewed. Chapter Two reviews the use of deep brain stimulation (DBS), in which deep brain stimulating electrodes are implanted into various brain nuclei in humans, in order to treat chronic pain and movement disorders. This technique not only permits direct electrical stimulation of the human brain, but also gives the opportunity to record the neural activity from different brain regions during a variety of cardiovascular experiments. This chapter also gives a detailed methodological description of the experimental techniques performed in the studies in this thesis. Chapter Three identifies the cardiovascular neurocircuitry involved in the exercise pressor reflex in humans using functional neurosurgery. It shows for the first time in humans that the exercise pressor reflex is associated with significantly increased neural activity in the dorsal PAG. The other sites investigated, which had previously been identified as cardiovascular active in both animals and humans, seem not to have a role in the integration of this reflex. Chapter Four investigates whether changes in exercise intensity affect the neurocircuitry involved in the exercise pressor reflex. It demonstrates that the neural activity in the PAG is graded to increases in exercise intensity and corresponding increases in arterial blood pressure. This chapter also provides evidence to suggest that neural activity in the STN corresponds to the cardiovascular changes evoked by the remote ischaemic preconditioning stimulus in humans. Chapter Five identifies the cardiovascular neurocircuitry involved during changes in central command during isometric exercise at constant muscle tension using muscle vibration. It shows that, in humans, central command is associated with significantly decreased neural activity in the STN. Furthermore, the STN is graded to the perception of the exercise task, i.e. the degree of central command. The other sites investigated appear not to have as significant a role in the integration of central command during the light exercise task that was undertaken. Chapter Six studies the changes in muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) during stimulation of various brain nuclei in humans. Regrettably, the results presented in this chapter are not convincing enough to support the hypothesis that stimulation of particular subcortical structures corresponds to changes in MSNA. However, the cardiovascular changes that were recorded during stimulation of the different subcortical structures are congruous with previous studies in both animals and humans. Chapter Seven presents a brief summary of the findings in this thesis.

INTRODUÇÃO: Pacientes com síndrome metabólica (SMet) apresentam aumento na atividade nervosa simpática muscular (ANSM) e diminuição no ganho do controle barorreflexo arterial (CBR). E, a apnéia obstrutiva do sono (AOS), uma comorbidade frequentemente encontrada em pacientes com SMet, exacerba essas disfunções autonômicas. Sabe-se que a incidência dos disparos e o padrão oscilatório da ANSM dependem do ganho (sensibilidade) e do tempo de retardo (latência) do CBR da ANSM (CBRANSM). Contudo, o padrão oscilatório da ANSM e o tempo de retardo do CBRANSM em pacientes com SMet associada ou não à AOS são desconhecidos. Além disso, estudos prévios demonstram que o treinamento físico associado à dieta hipocalórica (TF+D) diminui a incidência dos disparos da ANSM e aumenta o ganho do CBR em pacientes com SMet. No entanto, os efeitos de TF+D no padrão oscilatório da ANSM e no ganho e tempo de retardo do CBRANSM em pacientes com SMet associado ou não a AOS permanecem desconhecidos. MÉTODOS: Foram estudados quarenta e quatro pacientes com SMet (critérios do ATP III), sem uso de medicamentos, que foram divididos em dois grupos de acordo com a presença da AOS (SMet-AOS, n=23 e SMet+AOS, n=21). Um grupo controle saudável (n=12) foi, também, incluído no estudo. Para avaliar o efeito da intervenção, os pacientes foram divididos consecutivamente em quatro grupos: 1- Sedentário sem AOS (SMet-AOS Sed, n=10); 2- Sedentário com AOS (SMet+AOS Sed, n=10); 3- TF+D sem AOS (SMet-AOS TF+D, n=13) e; 4- TF+D com AOS (SMet+AOS TF+D, n=11). Os grupos TF+D foram submetidos ao treinamento físico aeróbio (40 min, 3 vezes por semana) associado à dieta hipocalórica (-500 kcal/dia) durante quatro meses e os grupos sedentários não realizaram a intervenção (TF+D) e somente receberam orientações clínicas. A AOS foi determinada através do índice de apneia e hipopneia (IAH) >15 eventos/hora (polissonografia). A ANSM (microneurografia), pressão arterial (batimento a batimento, método oscilométrico), padrão oscilatório da ANSM (relação dos componentes de baixa frequência-BF, e alta frequência-AF da ANSM, BFANSM/AFANSM, análise espectral autorregressivo monovariada) e o CBRANSM espontâneo (ganho e tempo de retardo, análise espectral autorregressivo bivariada) foram avaliados durante o repouso na posição deitada por 10 minutos. RESULTADOS: No período pré-intervenção, os pacientes com SMet-AOS e SMet+AOS apresentaram redução no BFANSM/AFANSM (P=0,01 e P<0,001, respectivamente) e no ganho do CBRANSM (P=0,01 e P<0,001, respectivamente), em comparação com o grupo Controle. E, os pacientes com SMet+AOS apresentaram menor BFANSM/AFANSM (P=0,02) e ganho do CBRANSM (P<0,001) em comparação com SMet-AOS. Ainda, o tempo de retardo do CBRANSM estava aumentado no grupo SMet+AOS em comparação com os grupos SMet-AOS e Controle (P=0,01 e P<0,001, respectivamente). Após a intervenção TF+D, ambos os grupos SMet-AOS e SMet+AOS apresentaram redução do peso corporal, circunferência abdominal e pressão arterial sistólica e aumento consumo de oxigênio no pico do exercício. Nos pacientes com SMet-AOS, o TF+D aumentou o BFANSM/AFANSM (P<0,05) e o ganho do CBRANSM (P<0,01). Nos pacientes com SMet+AOS, o TF+D aumentou o nível de saturação mínima de O2 (P=0,02) durante a polissonografia, o BFANSM/AFANSM (P=0,001) e o ganho do CBRANSM (P<0,01) e, diminuiu o IAH (P<0,01) durante a polissonografia e o tempo de retardo do CBRANSM (P=0,01). Nenhuma alteração foi observada em ambos os grupos sedentários. CONCLUSÕES: O TF+D aumenta o padrão oscilatório da ANSM e o ganho do CBRANSM em pacientes com SMet, independentemente da presença da AOS. No entanto, este efeito é mais pronunciado em pacientes com SMet+AOS, já que após a intervenção o tempo de retardo do CBRANSM foi também diminuído nestes pacientes / INTRODUCTION: Patients with metabolic syndrome (MetS) have increased muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) and decreased arterial baroreflex control (BRC). Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), a comorbidity often found in patients with MetS, exacerbates these autonomic dysfunctions. It is known that burst incidence and the oscillatory pattern of MSNA depend on the gain (sensitivity) and the time delay (latency) of BRC of MSNA (BRCMSNA). However, the oscillatory pattern of MSNA and the time delay of BRCMSNA in patients with MetS either with or without OSA are unknown. Moreover, previous studies have shown that exercise training associated with hypocaloric diet (ET+D) decreases the burst incidence of MSNA and increases the gain of BRC in patients with MetS. However, the effects of ET+D on the oscillatory pattern of MSNA and on the gain and time delay of BRCMSNA in patients with MetS with or without OSA remain unknown. METHODS: Forty-four never-treated MetS patients (ATP III criteria) were allocated in two groups according to the presence of OSA (MetS-OSA, n=23 and MetS+OSA, n=21). A healthy control group (n=12) was also included in the study. To evaluate the effect of the intervention, patients were consecutively divided into four groups: 1- Sedentary without OSA (MetS-OSA Sed, n=10); 2- Sedentary with OSA (MetS+OSA Sed, n=10); 3- ET+D without OSA (MetS-OSA TF+D, n=13) and 4- ET+D with OSA (MetS+OSA ET+D, n=11). ET+D groups were submitted to aerobic exercise (40 min, 3 times per week) associated to hypocaloric diet (-500 kcal / day) for four months and sedentary groups did not perform the intervention (ET+D) and only received clinical orientations. OSA was determined by the apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) >15 events/hour (polysomnography). The MSNA (microneurography), blood pressure (beat-to-beat basis, oscillometry method), oscillatory pattern of MSNA (relationship of the components of low frequency - LF, and high frequency - HF of MSNA, LFMSNA/HFMSNA, monovariate autoregressive spectral analysis) and spontaneous BRCMSNA (gain and time delay, bivariate autoregressive spectral analysis) were evaluated during rest at lying position for 10 min. RESULTS: In the pre-intervention period, patients with MetS-OSA and MetS+OSA showed reduced LFMSNA/HFMSNA (P=0.01 and P<0.001, respectively) and gain of BRCMSNA (P=0.01 and P<0.001, respectively) compared to Control group. And, the patients with MetS+OSA had lower LFMSNA/HFMSNA (P=0.02) and gain of BRCMSNA (P<0.001) compared to MetS- OSA. The time delay of BRCMSNA was higher in MetS+OSA group compared to MetS-OSA and Control groups (P=0.01 and P<0.001, respectively). After ET+D, both groups MetS-OSA and MetS+OSA decreased body weight, waist circumference and systolic blood pressure and increased peak oxygen uptake during exercise. In patients with MetS-OSA, the ET+D increased LFMSNA/HFMSNA (P<0.05) and the gain of BRCMSNA (P<0.01). In patients with MetS+OSA, ET+D increased minimum oxygen saturation level (P=0.02) during polysomnography, the LFMSNA/HFMSNA (P=0.001) and the gain of BRCMSNA (P<0.01) and decresed AHI (P<0.01) during polysomnography and the time delay of BRCMSNA (P=0.01). No alterations were observed in both sedentary groups. CONCLUSION: ET+D increase the oscillatory pattern of MSNA and the gain of BRCMSNA in patients with MetS, regardless of the presence of OSA. However, this effect is more pronounced in patients with MetS+OSA, since after intervention the time delay of BRCMSNA was also diminished in these patients

Esta tese avaliou as respostas fisiológicas à hiperinsulinemia aguda em mulheres na pós-menopausa, verificando os efeitos isolados e associados da terapia hormonal (TH) e do treinamento aeróbico (TF) sobre estas respostas. Assim, 31 mulheres histerectomizadas, saudáveis e na pós-menopausa foram divididas, aleatoriamente e de forma duplo cega, nos grupos: PLA-CO(n=7), TH-CO(n=6), PLA-TF(n=10), TH-TF(n=8). Os grupos TH receberam valerato estradiol (1 mg/dia) e os PLA, placebo. Os grupos TF treinaram em cicloergômetro, 3x/sem em intensidade moderada e os CO permaneceram sedentários. Antes e após 6 meses, foi realizado um clampeamento euglicêmico/hiperinsulinêmico. Em resposta à hiperinsulinemia, houve aumento das catecolaminas plasmáticas, da modulação simpática cardíaca, da pressão arterial sistólica, da frequência cardíaca e do fluxo sanguíneo. Após 6 meses, o TF aumentou a sensibilidade à insulina e reduziu o aumento da noradrenalina durante a hiperinsulinemia. Tanto isoladamente quanto em associação, o TF e a TH impediram a redução do aumento do fluxo sanguíneo durante a hiperinsulinemia, o que foi observado no grupo PLA-CO. Além disso, quando associadas, estas condutas reduziram o aumento da adrenalina durante a hiperinsulinemia. Concluindo: em mulheres pós-menopausadas saudáveis, a hiperinsulinemia aguda aumentou a atividade simpática e promoveu vasodilatação, levando ao aumento da pressão arterial sistólica e da frequência cardíaca, sem alterar a pressão diastólica, respectivamente. O TF aumentou a sensibilidade à insulina, diminuindo a ativação simpática e mantendo a vasodilatação induzida pela hiperinsulinemia, enquanto que a TH teve o mesmo efeito sobre a vasodilatação, sem alterar a sensibilidade à insulina. A associação das duas condutas teve pouco efeito aditivo / This thesis evaluated the physiological responses to acute hyperinsulinemia in post-menopausal women, analyzing the isolated and combines effects of hormone therapy (HT) and aerobic training (AT) on these responses. Thus, 31 healthy, hysterectomized postmenopausal women were randomly divided (in a double-blinded manner) into groups: PLA-CO(n=7), HT-CO(n=6), PLA-AT(n=10), HT-AT(n=8). HT groups received valerato estradiol (1 mg/day) while PLA groups received placebo. AT groups trained on cycle ergometer, 3x/week at moderate intensity, while CO groups stayed sedentary. Before and after 6 months, an euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp were performed. Hyperinsulinemia increased plasma catecholamines, sympathetic cardiac modulation, systolic blood pressure, heart rate, and blood flow. After 6 months, AT increased insulin sensitivity and reduced insulin induced increase in norepinephrine. AT and HT, applied alone or together, abolished the decline in insulin induced increase in blood flow that was observed in PLA-CO. Besides, the association of both interventions decreased insulin induced increase in epinephrine. In conclusion: in healthy postmenopausal women, acute hyperinsulinemia increased sympathetic activity but produced vasodilation, which resulted in an increase in systolic blood pressure and heart rate, with no change in diastolic blood pressure, respectively. AT increased insulin sensitivity, decreasing sympathetic activation and maintaining vasodilatory response during hyperinsulinemia, while HT had the same effect on vasodilation without changing insulin sensitivity. The association of both interventions had minor addictive effects