漢語語法研究，自《馬氏文通》(1898)以來，到了本世紀三、四十年代在「革新」的旗幟下，在南方的一批語法學家展開了「文法革新討論」而探索漢語語法研究的新方向和方法；在北方，出現了三套的漢語語法的新體系。高名凱(1910~1965)是語言學家，漢語語法學者。四、五十年代漢語語法界的重要人物。他在哲學的基礎下，對漢語語法有深入的探究，並且在普通語言學方面有突出的成就。他在漢語語法方面主要專著《漢語語法論》（初版1948；修訂本1957）是從句法角度分析來研究漢語的基本結構規則而歸納漢語結構的類型。他的語法論的主要特徵是：一、注重句法的研究；二、注重表示語法範疇的虛詞的研究；三、注意句型的研究。特別的是他把語法分為表知語法和表情語法，而從不同的角度探討漢語句法結構。本文主要探討高名凱論「漢語結構規則」標準及方法，即漢語句法結構的規則及其理論體系。他根據表知語法和表情語法，把句法分析分為造句法和句型結構法：造句法是根據表知語法角度進行分析漢語句法成分的語義關係，而歸納結構類型；句型結構法是根據表情語法的角度探討漢語句子的結構類型。筆者研究這一題目的主要目的在於：以《漢語語法論》為主要對象（以其他論著為輔），探索高名凱句法理論的主要特點。本文共分六章，各章重點如下：第一章緒論，主要介紹高名凱和他的《漢語語法論》在漢語語法研究史上的地位和價值，並簡述句法分析的方法及本文的研究方法。第二章主要簡述高名凱句法理論產生的背景及理論基礎。第三章造句法，主要探討高名凱漢語的造句規則和句法結構的類型，即句法結構的分類標準及他所歸納的五種（規定、引導、對注、並列和聯絡）結構類型。第四章句型結構法，主要探討高名凱的句型的分類方法和漢語句子類型，並討論高名凱所主張的表情語法的主要根據和表達情意的語法方式。第五章主要對高名凱句法理論體系的諸問題的進一步探討。主要有：（一）「詞組」的範圍問題；（二）主謂結構的定位問題；（三）結構虛詞；（四）特殊句式（以上是造句法）；（五）否定句問題；（六）詢問句和疑惑句的區分問題；（七）表情虛詞（以上是句型結構法）。第六章結論，重新檢討高名凱句法理論體系並加以評估。

Dans un monde devenu séculier et où la tradition chrétienne est en recul, on est en droit de se poser la question de la pertinence des textes bibliques. En lien avec cette situation, on peut aussi se demander quelle représentation de Dieu émerge de la façon dont on accueille ces textes. Ce type de questionnement sous-tend l’intérêt que peut représenter une approche processuelle des textes bibliques, approche encore peu connue dans le monde francophone. Celle-ci est-elle en mesure d’apporter une certaine nouveauté dans la vision de Dieu généralement proposée en milieu chrétien ? Pour répondre à cela, il a semblé pertinent de tenter l’exercice à partir d’un texte englobant et fondateur. Genèse 2, connu pour raconter la création d’Adam et Ève, est porteur d’images presque stéréotypées à force d’avoir été lu et remâché. À ce titre, il a paru particulièrement approprié. Mais, avant même d’explorer le texte sous un angle processuel, il s’est avéré indispensable de commencer cette démarche par une traduction personnelle du texte hébreu, à partir et avec l’aide d’une analyse syntaxique et textuelle, dont on verra qu’elles ont ouvert le texte à de nouvelles hypothèses de traduction, de nouvelles nuances, comme autant de pistes à confronter à une théologie processuelle. Enfin, cette analyse ne peut se faire sans être en dialogue avec différents commentaires, exégétiques ou non, afin de souligner les convergences comme les divergences rencontrées au fil de la recherche et de la réflexion. / In the world that has become secular and where the Christian tradition is declining, we are entitled to question the pertinence of the biblical texts. In link with this situation, one can also wonder which representation of God arises depending how one receives these texts. This type of questioning underlies the interest that a Process approach of biblical texts can represent, even though the approach is still not much known in the French-speaking world. Does this approach possesses the ability of bringing some novelty to the vision of God generally offered in the Christian world ? To answer this, it seemed preferable to try the experience from a founding and forerunner text. Genesis 2, known to tell the creation of Adam and Eve, is bearing most stereotypic images by having been read and read, and chewed again. Therefore, seemed to be particularly accurate. But even before exploring the text from a Process angle, it has been proved essential to begin this with a personal translation of the Hebrew text, from and with the help of a syntactic and textual analysis, which as it will be shown, has conducted to open the text to new assumptions of translations and nuances, as so many tracks to be confronted to a Process theology. Finally, this analysis cannot be made without engaging in a dialogue with different commentaries, exegetical or not, in order to underline the convergences as well as the divergences met in the course of the research and of the reflexion.

Šio magistro darbo tikslas - išanalizuoti, kokios kalbinės poveikio priemonės dominuoja lietuvių ir britų kultūrose ir kaip reklaminiuose šūkiuose atskleidžiami nacionaliniai lietuvių ir britų būdo bruožai. Lietuviškų ir britiškų reklaminių šūkių kalbinių poveikio priemonių ir nacionalinio lietuvių ir britų charakterio atspindžio analizei reklaminiuose šūkiuose atlikti buvo surinkti 105 lietuviški ir 95 britiški reklaminiai šūkiai. Tyrimas atliktas naudojant kokybinį, kiekybinį ir gretinamąjį metodus, remiantis reklamos teorija, retorinėmis poveikio priemonėmis ir lietuvių ir britų kultūrų skirtumais, atsižvelgiant į nacionalinį tautų charakterį. Tyrimo rezultatai atskleidžia, kad lietuviai fonetinių, leksinių ir sintaksinių stiliaus figūrų reklaminiuose šūkiuose vartoja kur kas gausiau nei britai ir nevengia viename reklaminiame šūkyje pavartoti kelių skirtingų stiliaus figūrų. Reklaminiuose šūkiuose lietuviai akcentuoja tautiškumą, meilę gamtai, šeimą, sveikatą ir meilę maistui, o britai – tautiškumą, meilę gamtai, sveiką gyvenimo būdą, maistą ir pagarbą tradicijoms. / The aim of the present paper was to analyze the dominant linguistic power means in the Lithuanian and British slogans and to determine how the Lithuanian and British national character is reflected in slogans. To reveal the main differences and similarities of the linguistic power means in the Lithuanian and British slogans 105 Lithuanian and 95 British slogans were collected. All the slogans were analzysed phonetically, lexically and syntactically. To carry out the research qualitative, quantitative and the contrastive analysis methods were used. The research was based on the advertising theory, rethorical power means and the theory of the Lithuanian and British national character.The research revealed that Lithuanians use much more phonetical, lexical and syntactical means in slogans than the British and they do not avoid to use a few different stylistic means in a slogan. Furthermore, Lithuanians are inclined to advertise nationality, love to nature, family, health and love to food and the British tend to advertise nationality, love to nature, healthy lifestyle, food and respect to traditions.

This dissertation concerns oral language tests from a grammatical perspective. Tests today are usually assessed based on a communicative approach to language, so it is interesting to see how great a significance the level of grammatical development of test takers has for their communicative competence in general. The data in the investigation consist of recorded test conversations from a Swedish national language proficiency test, Tisus (test in Swedish for university and university college studies). The general aim of the study is to investigate whether there is a difference between the test takers who passed and those who failed in terms of their level of grammatical development. This is investigated in one main study and two smaller follow-up studies. The theoretical basis for this work is comprised of theories on second language learning and theories on language testing. For the grammatical analysis, Pienemann’s processability theory (PT) is applied. This theory posits that learners acquire certain morpho-syntactic structures in a particular order, something that produces a hierarchy consisting of five levels. In the main study, a quantitative analysis is made of the test takers’ level of grammatical development relative to their TISUS results. The results show a clear correlation between grammatical level and test results. There also seems to be a kind of watershed at level 4, given that most of the test takers who passed have command of this level in the PT hierarchy, whereas those who failed, as a rule, only make it to level 3. The first follow-up study is more qualitative in nature and is focused on the test takers who deviate from the general pattern of results in the main study: those who failed despite their high grammatical level and those who passed despite their low grammatical level. One result of this follow-up study is that, in these cases, it appears communicative competence was critical. Being able to orient oneself to the special conversational situation represented by the test conversation is considered to be particularly important. In a second follow-up study, the problems of applying PT to morphology and syntax are examined. The results of the dissertation suggest that there is a correlation between grammatical competence and communicative competence in general. This means that the grammatical levels in the PT hierarchy may constitute a useful basis of analysis in oral assessments, as a complement to other assessment tools.

This thesis aims to map the occurrence of reproduction of own and other people's language in everyday communication and focus on characteristic features of spokenness. After the first part, which will study this issue in theoretical level, proceed to the analysis. Everything will be completed by pondering on the research results and their implications. The material from which the work is based, consists monologues and dialogues of 65 people of different ages, gender and social inclusion. By these criteria the material is also categorized and analyzed in the context of reproduction and of characteristic features of spokenness in all layers of simple communicative style. All the material isn't older than two years and using by a recording equipment is maintained in spoken and subsequently also in written form.

This Diploma Thesis is concerned with the research on pupils? conception of orthographical questions, importance and relevance to grammatical phenomena and grammatical correctness in current communication used by pupils in secondary schools. The Thesis is divided into three parts. The theoretical part deals with the definition of term ?orthography?, orthographical principles and functions, the importance of orthography and its types. There is also a section in the theoretical part which is concerned with the main tendencies and the newest approaches to orthography in secondary schools. In this part attention is focused on history of orthography, orthographical limitations and analysis of mistakes in current school, further the influence of computer on spelling and its educational usage, types of orthographical exercises, its correction and marking. It also contains a cross-section of orthographical questions in the Slovak Republic and foreigners? spelling problems. The practical part deals with the analysis of theoretical curriculum converted into practical tasks. There are also the most frequent mistakes and pupils? attitude to orthography education in this part, which we got on the basis of questionnaire evaluation. In the third part, which is also practical, there are some methods for pupils? motivation which should help to raise the efficiency of orthography education in secondary schools.

This diploma thesis examines the Czech expression copak and its translation counterparts. It focuses on the individual functions and meanings of copak and the ways these are expressed in the English translation. The aim of the present paper is to determine to what extent the discourse meanings of copak as a particle are maintained in the translations and what means English uses to do so. Regarding the pronominal function of copak, the main issue is to examine whether the postfix -pak is reflected in the English translations or not and what equivalents are used in comparison to the forms without the postfix. Another objective is to analyse the English counterparts according to their formal representation and define their discourse functions in respect to the discourse meanings of the Czech originals containing copak. The research carried out in the present thesis was based on material drawn from the parallel corpus InterCorp. A total of 240 examples with the expression copak was excerpted with the English translations aligned to them. The analysis was divided into five parts, according to the particular word class of copak. Particles proved to be the most productive word class, as they provided 187 examples and 25 different translation counterparts, negative question being the most frequent one. The...

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La terminologie des sciences et techniques spatiales (STS) relevée sur corpus est étudiée dans le cadre et avec la structuration ontologique du domaine. La formation morphosyntaxique, le caractère de l’unité terminologique ainsi que le schéma d’arguments (expressions prédicatives et arguments) sont analysés tant en contexte qu’indépendamment du contexte. L’unité terminologique se caractérise par un degré de figement relatif : une des propriétés de l’unité terminologique « longue » est que celle-ci peut souvent être décomposée, elle peut avoir un comportement discursif, notamment la reprise anaphorique et la réduction par suppression de l’un de ses composants. Dans ce dernier cas, il s’agit de certains aspects de la terminologisation tels que la chute d’une information non différentielle et le maintien d’un élément nominal ou caractérisant. Ainsi, plusieurs aspects sont des facteurs constants qui peuvent permettre de mettre en évidence l’évolution diachronique de l’unité terminologique. L’apport de la structuration ontologique est analysé dans le but de décrire non seulement les concepts des STS mais aussi l’emploi du schéma d’arguments (verbal et nominal) dans le corpus en se fondant sur des étiquettes sémantico-syntaxiques. Une analyse du verbe spécialisé a été développée pour fournir des informations utiles à la constitution des bases de données terminologiques multilingues ou encore la rédaction des définitions technoscientifiques. L’étude a permis également de décrire des verbes absents dans les dictionnaires de spécialité, de montrer comment un verbe peut acquérir un nouveau sens spécialisé et d’identifier l’agent typique de ces verbes. Deux classifications du verbe spécialisé selon ses emplois et sa structure morphosyntaxique ont été proposées : unité verbale simple (UVS) et unité verbale complexe (UVC). Un syntagme implique l’une des deux analyses : unité compositionnelle ou unité non-compositionnelle. Selon la situation contextuelle, la définition du verbe en langue de spécialité a permis enfin de distinguer les trois acceptions du verbe : verbe très spécialisé, verbe polysémique et verbe support. / The terminology related to the space science and technology (SST), corpus-based approach, is studied within the framework of the ontological structure pattern. The morpho-syntactical formation of the terminological unit, its characteristics as well as the schemata of arguments (predicative expressions and arguments) are both analyzed within the context and beyond the context. It’s characterized by a level of relative fixed structure: one of the properties of the “long” terminological unit that can often be decomposed. It can have a discursive behavior in particular, discourse anaphora, and the reduction by deletion of one of its components. In the latter case, this refers to certain aspects of the terminologization such as non-differential element falling and a characteristic or nominal element maintaining. Therefore, some aspects are constant factors which allow to highlight the diachronic evolution of the terminological unit. The outcome of the ontological structure is analyzed with the aim of describing not only the concepts of the SST, but also the use of the schemata of arguments i.e. verbal and nominal in the corpus by establishing itself on the semantic-syntactical labels. An analysis of the specialized verb was developed to supply useful information for the constitution of the multilingual terminological database or to give techno-scientific definitions. The study also allowed to describe absent verbs in the specialized dictionaries, to show how a verb can acquire a new specialized meaning, to identify the typical agent of the specialized verbs. There are two classifications of the specialized verb according to their uses and their morpho-syntactical structure were proposed as; simple verbal unit (SVU) and complex verbal unit (CVU). A syntagm involves one of the two analyzes: compositional unit or non-compositional unit. According to the situational context, the definition of the verb in LSP allowed finally to identify three meanings of the verb: very specialized verb, polysemous verb, and support verb.

Nesta tese, objetiva-se investigar o funcionamento sintático, semântico e pragmático das construções com se... verbo ser + porque sob uma perspectiva da teoria funcionalista da linguagem. Utilizam-se os postulados de Dik (1989), que propõe um modelo de interação verbal, segundo o qual, na construção dos enunciados linguísticos, o falante antecipa uma possível interpretação do ouvinte e este reconstrói a intenção comunicativa do falante. Assim, na análise dos enunciados, os fatores sintático e semântico são conjugados ao componente pragmático. Baseia-se, ainda, nas considerações de Taylor (2003) e Rosch (2004), que defendem que as fronteiras de uma categoria são flexíveis; tal ideia conduz à questão da fluidez semântica, presente na construção com se... ser porque. Em relação à metodologia, para a exemplificação da construção em estudo na parte teórica, usam-se textos jornalísticos contemporâneos de diversificados gêneros discursivos; para a análise semântica e pragmática, utilizam-se entrevistas jornalísticas (contemporâneas), pois estas trazem natureza interativa, compatível com a construção em pauta; para o exame da formação da estrutura com se... ser porque, adota-se, especialmente, o Corpus do Português, visto que esse material permite a visualização de dados em uma diacronia. No que concerne à natureza sintática das construções com se... ser porque, verifica-se que: i) elas constituem uma correlação entre duas hipotaxes; ii) elas são construções híbridas, e as orações condicional e causal não possuem oração matriz explícita. No que tange à questão semântica, aliada ao componente pragmático, observa-se que: i) a oração com se pode ser factual, demonstrando, por exemplo, concordância do locutor em relação à avaliação feita pelo interlocutor; ii) a oração com se pode ser hipotética, sentido que, na estrutura com se... ser porque, é compatível com a expressão da habitualidade, com a presença do matiz temporal; iii) há, muitas vezes, fluidez semântica em se... ser porque, com a manifestação dos valores de causa e de conclusão; iv) a leitura causal não se limita a uma relação entre causa e consequência, pois há casos em que se manifesta uma conexão entre motivação e ação; v) são expressos dois tipos de conclusão, a dedução e a abdução; e a determinação do tipo de conclusão envolve certa subjetividade, não se restringindo, assim, a uma questão lógica. Em relação à organização discursiva, constata-se que: i) a oração condicional atua como tópico, trazendo resumo, paráfrase, contraste ou exemplificação; ii) o verbo ser atua como focalizador, tomando como escopo a segunda oração da correlação e explicitando, muitas vezes, informação nova; iii) a oração com ser porque é utilizada para anular outras inferências possíveis, e o segmento focalizado indica, entre outros aspectos, informação solicitada pelo interlocutor, negação de ideia exposta anteriormente, confirmação. A partir dos resultados obtidos, é possível questionar conceitos tradicionalmente estabelecidos, como a atribuição apenas do sentido de hipótese à oração condicional e somente do valor semântico de causa à oração causal. Além disso, esta tese tem como objeto de estudo uma construção ainda pouco investigada em pesquisas linguísticas, podendo, assim, oferecer subsídios para novas reflexões sobre a estrutura com se... ser porque. / This research investigates the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic operation of constructions with \"if... verb to be + because\" under the perspective of the functionalist theory of language. The Dik\'s (1989) postulates are used. They propose a verbal interaction model, according to which, in the construction of linguistic utterances, the speaker anticipates a possible interpretation of the listener, who reconstructs the communicative intention of the speaker. Thus, in the analysis of the utterances, the syntactic and semantic factors are conjugated to the pragmatic component. It is also based on considerations of Taylor (2003) and Rosch (2004), who advocate that the boundaries of a category are flexible; such idea leads to the question of semantic fluidity, present in the construction with if... be because. Regarding the methodology for exemplification of the construction under study in theoretical part, contemporary journalistic texts of diverse genres are used; for semantic and pragmatic analysis, contemporary journalistic interviews are used, as these bring interactive nature, compatible with the construction in question; for examination of the formation of the structure if... be because, the \"Corpus of Portuguese \" is embraced, specially, as this material allows the visualization of data in a diachrony. Regarding the syntactic nature of constructions with if... be because, it can be noticed that: i) they constitute a correlation between two hypotaxis constructions; ii) they are hybrid constructions, and conditional and causal clauses have no matrix clause. Regarding the semantic issue, allied to pragmatic component, it is observed that: i) clauses with if may be factual, showing, for example, agreement of the speaker in relation to the assessment made by the interlocutor; ii) clauses with if may be hypothetical, a meaning that in the structure if... be because is compatible with the habitual expression, with presence of temporal nuance; iii) quite often, there is semantic fluidity in if... be because, due to manifestation of cause and conclusion values; iv) causal reading is not limited to a relation between cause and consequence, as there are cases in which a connection between motivation and action is manifested; v) two types of conclusion are expressed, deduction and abduction; and determining the type of conclusion involves some subjectivity, thus, it is not restricted to a logical issue. Regarding the discursive organization, it is confirmed that: i) conditional clauses act as a topic, bringing summary, paraphrase, contrast or exemplification; ii) the verb to be acts as a focusing event, taking the second correlation sentence as a scope and, quite often, clarifying new information; iii) clauses with be because are used to nullify other possible inferences, and the focused segment indicates, among other aspects, information requested by the interlocutor, denial of previously exposed idea, and confirmation. From the results obtained, it is possible to enquire traditionally established concepts, as the assignment of only hypothesis sense to conditional clauses and of only the cause semantic value to causal clauses. Moreover, this thesis has as object of study a construction still poorly investigated in linguistic research, thus, it can offer subsidies to new reflection about the structure if... be because.