A high level of “environmental awareness” in the participating countries will likely raise the success of the Kyoto Protocol negotiated in Paris in 2015. In this context it is of interest to investigate the diffusion of environmental awareness, and also the (economic) factors, on which this diffusion depends. This paper addresses these questions for the regions of the Russian Federation, which are sufficiently diverse regarding cultural and economic issues. From a formal point of view, a “Multiple-Indicator-Multiple- Causes” (MIMIC) approach, based on a variety of “indicators” for environmental awareness, derived from search entries in c Yandex, and a variety of “causes”, economic and socio-economic factors, is applied. The empirical results point first to a strong dependence of environmental awareness on the level of GRP per capita. Moreover, the diffusion seems to spread from the eastern part of Russia towards the western regions.

The subject of this thesis is the usage of economic instruments (EIs) in multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) and their relation to international economic law. The thesis aims at analysing and evaluating the possibilities of using economic instruments, their potential to ensure the compliance with the treaties' provisions and assessing, under which conditions it is possible to use them in compliance with the international economic law. As a lot of economic instruments operate with restrictions to international trade in several manners, they can get in conflict with the law embodying this area, namely the law of the World Trade Organization. The thesis therefore analyses the main principles and provisions of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade that can affect the usage of EIs in MEAs. Most attention is paid to the interpretation of exemptions from the Agreement that can legalize such restrictions. Trade-Related Environmental Measures shouldn't be discriminatory. They shouldn't present arbitrary or unjustifiable restriction to trade against the principles and provisions of the WTO agreements. Such restrictions can only be made based on international agreement. The case of trade restriction based on MEA wasn't yet considered by Dispute Settlement Body and the answer hence depends on the...

This paper deals with issues in the influence emission trading has on investment decisions. It explains the system of emissions trading and focuses on the emergence and development of European emissions trading and describes its influence on the Czech Republic. It briefly describes questions of investment decisions in a company, in particular the methods and criteria of investment decisions. The main goal of the paper is to analyse the influence of emissions trading on investment decisions. The analysis is made using investment projects in a real company. With the help of economic evaluation of investments, it classifies variations of investment projects when the influence of emission trading is excluded or with different prices of emission allowances. Using this analysis, I will try to prove that emissions trading can disadvantage some investments, which would otherwise be economically effective and feasible.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-10T10:47:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 GIANPAOLO MACHADO LAGE DE MELO.pdf: 563346 bytes, checksum: 00630ef22ac0f33210b6617e409b36e2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-06-19 / The Contemporary Society came upon with the global climate changes such as, increasing of the global temperature, natural phenomana which happened with less intensity in the past, increasing of sea s level, earthquakes, overflowings and tornatos in the end of 70 s where of the First Convention on Climate Change. In the end of 1980 s, the United Nations and the World Meteorological Organization created the Intergovernment Panel on Climate Change to discuss these changes, and the most important agenda is the Kyoto s Protocol, which establish that the developed contries, related in the Anex I from this protocol, have do reduce between 2008 and 2012 the level of emisson of greenhouse smoke in 5,2% compared to the levels in 1990. Using this reduction by the implementation and the acceptance of the Clean Mecanism of Delevopment are created the Certified Emission Reductions (CER) which will be negociated between the Brazilian companies and the companies settled in the nations included in the Protocol. However, it is contoversy the judicial classification given to the CER in Brazil and, consequently, the accouting treatment used to tax directly and indirectly the Carbon Credits and what are the possibilities to avoid its the Double Taxation. And, by these reality, this is the challange that it will pretend to solve. / A sociedade contemporânea se deparou com as alterações no clima global tais como, elevação da temperatura mundial, fenômenos naturais que aconteciam com menos intensidade, elevação do nível dos mares, terremotos, enchentes e tornados a partir do final da década de 1970 a partir da Primeira Convenção Climática Mundial. Logo, as Nações Unidas e a Organização Meteorológica Mundial, no final da década de 1980, criaram o Painel Intergovernamental em Mudanças Climáticas para discutir essas mudanças, sendo que o documento mais importante, atualmente, é o Protocolo de Kyoto que determinou que os países industrializados, relacionados no Anexo I do mesmo, têm de reduzir entre 2008 e 2012 o nível de emissão de GEEs na média de 5,2% em relação aos níveis medidos em 1990. Por meio desta redução mediante a implementação e aprovação do Projeto de Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo MDL são gerados os créditos de carbono que serão negociados entre as empresas brasileiras e as empresas instaladas nos países constantes do Anexo I do Protocolo de Kyoto. Contudo, é polêmica a classificação jurídica que deve ser dada ao crédito de carbono no Brasil e, conseqüentemente, o tratamento contábil que deve ser dado a este no momento de tributá-lo diretamente e indiretamente e quais são as possibilidades de se evitar uma dupla tributação do crédito de carbono. E, diante desta realidade, este é o desafio que tentará ser solucionado.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-26T20:19:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Marcela Cristina Borella.pdf: 775257 bytes, checksum: b3a72db8721aee2ace4809afee7de922 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-11-05 / The development consists on an expansion of human capabilities with respect to increasing the security and life expectancy, education, a dignified life and free citizen. Currently, besides the assurance of economic, social and cultural development, we seek to further that it is environmentally sustainable. The provisions of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol, in particular the Clean Development Mechanism, seeking to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases by industrialized countries and promote sustainable development of the developing countries. Measures under the Kyoto Protocol to mitigate the climatic effects caused by the emission of greenhouse gases, should not be considered an obstacle to development, instead, should be seen as a tool for sustainable development in developing countries / O desenvolvimento consiste em uma ampliação das capacidades humanas no que diz respeito ao aumento e à garantia de expectativa de vida, de educação, de uma vida digna, cidadã e livre. Atualmente, além da garantia do desenvolvimento econômico, social e cultural, buscase, ainda, que seja ambientalmente sustentável. As disposições previstas na Convenção- Quadro das Nações Unidas sobre Mudança do Clima e os respectivos mecanismos previstos no Protocolo de Quioto, em especial o Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo, buscam a redução das emissões de gases de efeito estufa pelos países industrializados e a promoção de um desenvolvimento sustentável dos países em desenvolvimento. As medidas previstas no Protocolo de Quioto para amenizar os efeitos no clima causados pela emissão de gases de efeito estufa, não devem ser consideradas um entrave ao desenvolvimento, ao contrário, devem ser vistas como uma ferramenta para o desenvolvimento sustentável dos países em desenvolvimento

A Convenção-Quadro das Nações Unidas sobre Mudanças Climáticas, que tem como objetivo final a estabilização das concentrações de gases de efeito estufa em um nível que impeça a interferência humana perigosa no sistema climático, estabeleceu o Protocolo de Kyoto. O Protocolo é um instrumento que permite aos Países do Anexo I (aqueles historicamente responsáveis pelas emissões de GEE) os meios de atingirem suas metas de redução de emissões de Carbono. Para que as metas sejam atingidas, o Protocolo instituiu mecanismos de flexibilização, dos quais destacamos o Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo (MDL). O MDL prevê financiamentos de Países do Anexo I em atividade que resultem em reduções/seqüestro de Carbono em países Não Anexo I. O primeiro projeto de MDL registrado no Comitê Executivo no mundo é o brasileiro NovaGerar, objeto deste estudo. O propósito deste trabalho é discutir o Protocolo de Kyoto, o Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo e verificar suas oportunidades a partir do projeto NovaGerar. / The United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has as final target to establish the greenhouse gases concentration on the atmosphere in one level that impedes the dangerous human interference on the climatic system. The UNFCCC established the Kyoto Protocol, one tool which allows Annex I Countries (that ones historically responsible for greenhouse gas emissions) to achieve their reduction targets. The Protocol put in place flexibility mechanisms - to help Annex I Countries to achieve their reduction targets - among them we highlight the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The CDM foresees Annex I Countries financings to activities which result in reduction/sequestration of Carbon in non Annex I Countries. The first CDM project registered in the Executive Committee was the Brazilian NovaGerar, subject of this study. The purpose of this text is to discuss the Kyoto Protocol, the Clean Development Mechanism and verify its opportunities based on NovaGerar project.

<p>The European Union has initiated a scheme for trading with CO2 emission allowances as a measure to reduce greenhouse gas emission levels. Since January 2005 companies from certain energy demanding sectors, responsible for approximately 50 % of the total CO2 emissions in the EU, are participating in this scheme, the so called EU Emission Trading Scheme.</p><p>A trading scheme covering all sectors, i.e. all emissions in the EU would lead to the most cost efficient solution to reduce emissions by a certain amount. This means that the EU Emission Trading Scheme should be enlarged to cover also the transport sector, which is not participating today, but responsible for about 21 % of the total greenhouse gas emissions in the EU.</p><p>There are three ways to include the transport sector in the EU Emission Trading Scheme, i.e. to administrate the handling and trading of emission allowances in the transport sector. The first is a so called downstream approach, meaning that the actual emitter of the GHG, in this case a private person driving a car or a haulage contractor using trucks to transport goods, would be responsible for acquiring and trading emission allowances in accordance to the amount of greenhouse gases that he emits. The second way is a so called upstream approach, meaning that the owner of fuel depots would be responsible for acquiring and trading emission allowances corresponding to the amount of fossil fuel that he is selling, which is proportional to the amount of greenhouse gases that is emitted when using the fuel. The third solution is to lay the responsibility for acquiring and trading emission allowances on the companies that are ordering the transportation service, indirectly causing greenhouse gas emissions when their goods are being transported.</p><p>All three solutions have their advantages and disadvantages, but the benefits of using the upstream approach are the greatest. By allocating the responsibility for keeping and trading emission allowances at the fuel depots, an extensive part of greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel use, not only in the transport sector, could be covered by the EU Emission Trading Scheme to the lowest administrational cost possible.</p>

<p>The thesis primarily tracks the history of historical responsibility in negotiations to and under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The concept aims at attributing individual country burdens in mitigating climate change based on the relative levels of past emissions. A hermeneutic approach and discursive theory has been applied to the empirical material consisting of documents form UNFCCC’s main bodies. Even though the concept was part of the discursive struggle over the content of the UNFCCC, it has been more central in the struggle to operationalise the Convention’s principles on equity. Historical responsibility has been most elaborated in a proposal by Brazil to the 1997 pre-Kyoto negotiations. This proposal combined a biophysical approach (preferred by the North) with that of a political economic approach (preferred by the South). However, the proposal was soon pushed of the central agenda and discussions on the topic turned technical and centred on scientific uncertainties. The biophysical framing excluded equity. At the same time as the proposal was marginalised within UNFCCC as a whole, it was central in discussions on comprehensive approaches to historical responsibility. Any that wanted to discuss comprehensive approaches were referred to this forum wherein talks on equity were excluded from the rules of discussion. This echoes a world system of a periphery, the global South, dependent upon core countries, the global North. The last mentioned have the capacity to set the agenda. The argument for marginalising the Brazilian proposal has been compared to the accepted Kyoto protocol with the result that the official arguments for marginalisation do not hold. The thesis also investigates historical responsibility’s problem solving potential as a concept that could create much needed dialogue across the North/South divide.</p> / <p>Uppsatsen söker främst följa konceptet ”historisk skuld” i klimatförhandlingarna som ledde till, och som senare fördes under, FNs ramkonvention om klimatförändringar (FCCC). Historisk skuld tillskriver länder eller regioner ett ansvar för klimatförändringar som baseras på dess historiska utsläppsnivåer av växthusgaser. Ansvarsberäkningarna ligger sedan till grund för bördefördelning. Empirin, beståendes av dokument från FCCCs organ, har analyserats genom hermeneutik och diskursteori. Historisk skuld fanns med i den diskursiva kampen över FCCC men blev centralt först i kampen över hur FCCCs rättviseprinciper skulle operationaliseras. Som mest genomarbetat har konceptet varit i det så kallade brasilianska förslaget vilket lades fram inför Kyotoförhandlingarna. Förslaget kombinerade en naturvetenskaplig gestaltning, som föredras av länder i nord, med en politisk ekonomisk dito, vilken föredras av syd. Det exkluderades emellertid fort från den beslutsfattande agendan och hänvisades till rådgivande organ där frågan teknifierades med fokus på vetenskapliga osäkerheter. Den naturvetenskapliga gestaltningen exkluderade samtal om rättvisa. Samtidigt som förslaget marginaliserades inom FCCC som helhet så blev det centralt i detaljerade diskussioner om historisk skuld. Om någon ville diskutera operationaliserade varianter av historisk skuld inom FN så hänvisade de till detta forum, ett forum där samtal om rättvisa exkluderats genom de tysta regler som styr diskussionen. Detta speglar ett världssystem där en periferi, det global syd, är beroende av centrala länder, det globala nord. De sistnämnda har kapaciteten att styra dagordningen. Argumenten bakom marginaliseringen av det brasilianska förslaget har sedan jämförts med det accepterade Kyotoprotokollet. Det visar sig då att de officiella argumenten för marginalisering inte håller. Uppsatsen undersöker också konceptets potential till att initiera välbehövlig dialog mellan nord och syd.</p>

<p>Aviation industry has been developing throughout the last decades and is today an important part of the global economy. This constant growth makes it important to constrain the climate impacts derived from it. The IPCC report (1999), Aviation and the global atmosphere, lists four measures to reduce emissions and environmental impacts of aviation; Aircraft and engine technology options, fuel options, operational options and regulatory and economic options. The study aims to discuss the efficiency and implementation level of the measures. The theoretical frame for the research is based on literature studies whereas the empirical material is based on qualitative interviews of representatives of three key sectors; the authority, the service provider and the aircraft operator.</p><p>While analysing the theoretical and the empirical results, a certain emphasis on the regulatory and economical measures has been noticed. Moreover, following conclusions have been drawn;</p><p>(1) An emission trading with carbon dioxide would be an incentive to improve aircraft technology and flying procedures; (2) The best way of having international aviation included in the European emissions trading scheme (EU ETS) would be through an initial grandfathering distribution (costless distribution of permits according to historical emission and volume of fuel use) done according to a best-practise philosophy; (3) A robust instrument to measure emissions behaviour at different levels of the atmosphere is still missing. (4) The exclusion of the international aviation from the Kyoto Protocol negotiations makes it harder to include it in the existing EU ETS. Finally, all measures are needed and should be put into practise, but a trading with emissions would be the one to start the improving cycle leading to more sustainable results regarding time, environment and economy.</p>

In diesem Beitrag wird der Hintergrund der internationalen Klimaverhandlungen erläutert und die Ergebnisse des Kopenhagen-Akkords vorgestellt. Angesichts des Scheiterns der Kopenhagener Konferenz muss die zeitnahe Schließung eines rechtlich bindenden, globalen Klimaabkommens als unwahrscheinlich gelten. Die Klimapolitik wird zukünftig verstärkt auf nationalstaatlicher und transnationaler Ebene erfolgen.