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Boston University. University Professors Program Senior theses. / PLEASE NOTE: Boston University Libraries did not receive an Authorization To Manage form for this thesis. It is therefore not openly accessible, though it may be available by request. If you are the author or principal advisor of this work and would like to request open access for it, please contact us at open-help@bu.edu. Thank you. / 2031-01-02

This thesis presents a descriptive and analytical study of Newar marriage and kinship in Kathmandu. Essentially, this is a study about caste and the role that it plays in Newar life, in particular, the way that caste is expressed through marriage patterns and kinship rituals. This study also shows that although the link between one's caste and one's traditional caste occupation is breaking down, one's caste identity is still maintained through one's choice of marriage partner and one's participation in kinship rituals which occur at the various levels of caste organization. Newar caste organizations are also undergoing a process of transformation. In addition to the traditional caste organizations, there are also new intercaste organizations which cater to the ritual needs of those in intercaste marriages. This recent phenomenon coincides with the professionalization of other caste organizations, which, in addition to performing their ritual duties, have also taken on the role of social and economic guardians to their caste members. It could be argued that although some forms of caste are no longer applicable, in other ways, caste in Newar society has never been stronger or more important. Despite the claim that intercaste marriages are on the rise, the data shows that the majority of Newars still practice caste endogamy. Membership into a caste organization - which is through the initiation ritual - is so important to Newar identity that intercaste couples have started their own caste organization to ensure that their offspring will officially be a part of a caste group. In sum, this study shows that despite the fact that caste is no longer recognized in the Nepalese constitution, caste is still the main vector of Newar identity, and this is seen most clearly through the analysis of Newar marriage and kinship.

A subfamília Myrmicinae é um grande desafio à sistemática de formigas por ser a maior e mais diversa subfamília de Formicidae, abrangendo cerca de seis mil espécies distribuídas mundialmente. As relações filogenéticas internas desta subfamília são fonte de discussão e incerteza na literatura. Os estudos moleculares desenvolvidos em Attini e Myrmicini (sensu Bolton) representaram os primeiros passos para a compreensão dos clados existentes em Myrmicinae. Recentemente, as 25 tribos estabelecidas para esta subfamília foram reorganizadas em apenas seis Attini, Crematogastrini, Myrmicini, Pogonomyrmecini, Solenopsidini e Stenammini. Hylomyrma Forel, 1912 o grupo objeto deste estudo atualmente pertence à tribo Pogonomyrmecini junto com outros dois gêneros, Patagonomyrmex Johnson & Moreau, 2016 e Pogonomyrmex Mayr, 1868. Hylomyrma é um gênero exclusivamente Neotropical cujas espécies habitam a serapilheira. Em decorrência do hábito críptico das espécies, a diversidade e a história natural do grupo são pouco conhecidas. Desde a revisão realizada por Kempf (1973), que reconheceu 12 espécies para o gênero, poucas foram as espécies incluídas em estudos filogenéticos e apenas uma espécie foi descrita posteriormente. O presente estudo teve por objetivo realizar um estudo de revisão taxonômica a partir da análise de uma quantidade extensa de material e investigar pela primeira vez as relações filogenéticas internas do gênero com base em caracteres morfológicos externos de operárias. Praticamente todos os espécimes-tipo designados para as espécies de Hylomyrma (com exceção do holótipo de H. reginae Kutter, 1977) foram examinados, além de 2.757 exemplares provenientes de 29 instituições. Quinze espécies novas foram reconhecidas, sendo 10 descritas com base tanto em operárias quanto em gines. Novos dados de distribuição foram registrados para as 13 espécies já conhecidas, bem como a descrição de cinco gines e seis machos. Além disso, o estudo taxonômico indica que a presença de espécimes cuja morfologia externa representa um mosaico entre gine e operária (intercastas) não é incomum no grupo, sendo observada para 11 espécies. O estudo filogenético foi realizado a partir de uma matriz composta por 88 caracteres e 31 terminais, sendo três espécies do grupo-externo. As análises de máxima parcimônia (MP) foram realizadas no programa TNT através de buscas tradicionais empregando o algorítmo de rearranjo de ramos TBR com 3.000 réplicas, 10 árvores salvas por réplica, random seed=0 e colapse trees=ON, sob esquemas de pesagem igual e implícitos. Os valores de concavidade (k) utilizados variaram entre 1-25. O suporte dos ramos foi calculado através do índice de Bremer. A análise com pesagem igual resultou em uma árvore com 269.274 passos (IC=0,379 e RI=0,59). Quatro diferentes árvores foram obtidas a partir das análises com pesagem implícita, k1, k3-9, k15 e k20-25. O resultado da análise filogenética corrobora a monofilia de Hylomyrma, com pelo menos nove sinapomorfias sustentando esta hipótese de agrupamento. Três grandes linhagens podem ser reconhecidas em Hylomyrma: A, espécies com tamanho corporal relativamente grande (car. 52, variando de 0,534 a 0,785); B, espécies com face posterior do pró-fêmur lisa (car. 45 1), estriação do primeiro tergito gastral restrita à base do segmento (car. 79 0) e presença de pelos ramificados no primeiro tergito do gáster (car. 85 1), condição posteriormente perdida por Hylomyrma sp. T; e C, caracterizado por espécies cujos pelos apresentam ramificações de tamanho igual (car. 15 0) e superfície dorsal do mesonoto com estriação irregular (car. 19 4). O conhecimento sobre a biologia das espécies de Hylomyrma é ainda bastante incipiente e grande parte das informações é proveniente de dados de rótulo e de raras observações em campo. As espécies deste grupo são comumente coletadas em amostras de serapilheira em florestas úmidas e secas, e plantações em locais ao nível do mar até elevações de 3.600 m. Aparentemente, as colônias de Hylomyrma são bastante pequenas, os ninhos são feitos em pequenos galhos caídos na serapilheira, os indivíduos são capazes de se fingir de mortos (tanatose) (observações pessoais) e as espécies apresentam dieta generalista. Como etapas futuras para a melhor compreensão deste grupo, sugere-se uma análise das relações internas dos gêneros através de ferramentas moleculares e a utilização de caracteres morfológicos de gines, bem como o estudo dos padrões biogeográficos e o estudo mais detalhado das intercastas para o entendimento da evolução de novidades morfológicas. / The subfamily Myrmicinae is a major challenge to ant systematics due to its outstanding diversity, which encompasses nearly six thousand species distributed worldwide. Phylogenetic relationships within this speciose subfamily are still subject to controversy in the literature. Molecular-based studies in Attini and Myrmicini (sensu Bolton) were the first to provide phylogenetic hypotheses for relationships within Myrmicinae. More recently, the twenty-five tribes of Myrmicinae were reorganized into only six Attini, Crematogastrini, Myrmicini, Pogonomyrmecini, Solenopsidini, and Stenammini. Hylomyrma Forel, 1912 the focal group of this study is currently classified in the tribe Pogonomyrmecini, along with two other genera, Patagonomyrmex Johnson & Moreau, 2016 and Pogonomyrmex Mayr, 1868. Members of Hylomyrma are exclusively found in the Neotropics, and live in leaf-litter. Due to their cryptic habits, the diversity and natural history of Hylomyrma species are still poorly known. Since the revision of Kempf (1973), who recognized 12 species in the genus, few representatives of Hylomyrma have been included in phylogenetic studies, and one species was described. Presented here is the first phylogenetic analysis of Hylomyrma based on a comprehensive taxon sampling, which is used as basis for a taxonomic revision of the genus. This study includes data retrieved from first-hand examination of nearly all types (except for the holotype of H. reginae Kutter, 1977), in addition to 2.757 exemplars from 29 institutions. Fifteen new species of Hylomyrma are recognized, ten of which were characterized based on worker and gyne morphology. New distribution records are provided for the thirteen previously known species, as well as morphological descriptions for gynes and males (in five and six species, respectively). Specimens showing features from both gynes and workers were observed in 11 species, suggesting that intercastes are not uncommon in this group. Phylogenetic analyses were performed on a matrix comprising 88 characters and 31 terminal taxa, including three species as outgroups. Maximum parsimony (MP) reconstructions were computed on the software TNT. The traditional search analysis were implemented with 3,000 replicates using the TBR algorithm, 10 trees saved per replication, random seed=0 and colapse trees=ON, under equal and implied weighing schemes. The concavity values (k) used were set between 1-25. The branch support was calculated by Bremer score. Unweighted MP analyses resulted in one cladogram with 269.274 steps (IC=0.379 and RI=0.59). Four different topologies were obtained for the following k intervals k1, k3-9, k15 and k20-25. Results strongly corroborate Hylomyrma as a monophyletic clade defined by nine synapomorphies. Internal phylogenetic relationships indicate three main lineages: A, species with large body lenght (char. 52, ranging from 0.534 to 0.785); B, species with posterior face of the anterior leg shiny (char. 45 1), first gastral tergite with very short striae (char. 79 0) and multibranched hairs (char. 85 1), condition subsequently lost by Hylomyrma sp. T; and C, characterized by species with multibranched hairs, being the branch with the same size (car. 15 0) and irregular striae on mesonotum dorsal side (car. 19 4). Natural history data, still unavailable for most Hylomyrma species, is mostly obtained from labels and scattered field observations. Exemplars are usually collected in leaf-litter samples in wet and dry forests, and cultivated areas from sea level up to elevations at 3,600 m. Hylomyrma colonies are apparently small, nests are made from small branches found in the leaf-litter, and these generalist ants which take on the appearance of being dead when they are threatened (thanatosis) (personal observations). Future developments in the systematics of Hylomyrma should include morphological characters based on gynes and molecular characters to increase the resolution of internal relationships, which will also allow the investigation of biogeographic patterns. A more detailed study of intercastes will shed light on the evolution of morphological novelties in ants.

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The central thesis is classical Marxian views concerning the peasant masses have been adopted regarding India; two causal factors are the Hindu Caste system and parliamentary democracy. Descriptive and analytical methodology is utilized to study classical and Indian Marxian theory and its relationship to "Marxist" practice in India. Four major elements involved are: wealthy landowners, poor and landless peasants, the Indian government, and Indian communists. Nonimplemented land reforms and recent capitalist farming compounded the problem. Attacks were launched on the Congress government by three communist parties. Government coalition has included the CPI, and has implemented agrarian reforms advocated by the CPI(M), thereby postponing possible militant communist success.

Poverty reduction and Education for All (EFA) are important policy issues in many developing countries as they are both Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). As the existing literature suggests, education positively influences poverty reduction, while poverty, or low income, adversely affects the quality and quantity of education. Accordingly, if education fails to facilitate poverty reduction, the following generation's schooling is likely to be adversely affected, thus perpetuating a vicious education–poverty circle. It was against such a background, and employing a mixed methods approach to data collection and analysis, that this study investigated the relationship between education and multidimensional poverty at an individual as well as household level, and the influence of deprivation on children's education, in the context of the slum in Delhi, India. The thesis reveals that education – particularly primary and middle schooling – enhances the earnings of male slum dwellers in particular, the overwhelming majority of whom suffer from informality and instability of employment. It also emerges that education plays an important role in the ability to participate with confidence in the public sphere. At the household level, education proves to have a positive association with monetary poverty, but a higher level of education per se does not necessarily facilitate escape from non-monetary poverty. In such a nexus of poverty and education, the thesis found that household wealth in association with social group and migration status tends to be positively correlated with child schooling, education expenditure, and basic learning. There may be a chance of escaping poverty through education, but such a likelihood is limited for those households that are underprivileged in terms of caste and religion owing to slow progress in basic learning, as well as migrant households due to lack of access to schooling. The thesis concludes by proposing some education policies drawn from the major findings of the study that may be implemented in the Indian slum context.

This research paper uses Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to analyse texts produced by the political party Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in India. The analysis use Machin and Mayr’s (2012) concepts of Language and Identity and Nominalisation and Presupposition with the aim to understand how the BJP can influence the democratic society in India through discourse. The texts analysed was taken from BJPs website and from parts of their 2014 manifesto. The theoretical framework and literature review are built on the role of Hinduism in the democratization of India. In this research, Hinduism act as an important factor in defining identity in India and Hindutva as an important factor in defining identity for the BJP. The analysis concludes that when looking at identity, the BJP demonstrate that their texts can have both a positive and a negative effect on the democracy in India. The BJP strongly use ‘India First’ to state that they want to unify the country under one identity and similarities can be drawn to their previous use of ‘Hindutva’. By promoting ‘India First’ the BJP includes a large audience and a somewhat tolerant outlook by stating to include all castes and ethnicities. However, the analysis demonstrates that their strong promotion of ‘India First’ conceal who is responsible to uphold this identity and that in turn could affect the tolerance in society. The analysis also shows that their definition of ‘India First’ is left vague and this can conceal certain interest. Their use of ‘India First’ as an identity can lead to a fear that everything that does not belong under this category is a threat. This combined with the diffuse definition of what ‘India First’ mean can have a negative effect on the pluralistic and tolerant society that was needed for India to transform to a democracy. The research also explores whether the strong promotion of ‘India First’ can be compared to a religious or spiritual movement and touch upon the implications that could follow from that.

This essay is a qualitative case study and aims to research how women's human rights are being violated in India according to the rights presented in the Universal Declaration on Human Rights between 2018 and 2021 and how this affects the female population based on gender approaches. The research questions this essay will attempt to answer are, how are women's human rights being violated, and how does it affect the women in India? How does gender affect Indian society and the female population? The theories used in the research are gender studies and The Universal Declaration on Human Rights. The findings in the essay can be concluded that violation according to the declaration is present in India, but not to the extent anticipated. Gender has a contributing factor to the women's situation in India. However, the degree to which it influences the female population depends on what aspects are the focus of the studied country. Gender inequality is not the only contributing factor to the situation in India.