Aktiemarknaden har en mängd olika teorier som förklarar hur människor agerar och hur de grundar sina beslut, de valda teorierna i studien är portföljteorin, den effektiva marknadshypotesen (EMH), beteendeekonomi, beteendeportföljteori och den adaptiva marknadshypotesen (AMH). De valda teorierna förklarar samma områden men på olika sätt, portföljteorin och EMH som säger att marknaden är effektiv och att människor är rationella. Beteendeekonomi, beteendeportföljteorin (BPT) och AMH säger istället att människor inte är rationella utan att de är normala; investerare har olika bias och agerar utifrån sina egna bedömningar. AMH skiljer sig något från beteendeekonomi och beteendeportföljteorin, men det de har gemensamt är att de förklarar investerares agerande med bland annat psykologi och beteendemönster. Syftet med studien är att undersöka hur investerare agerar, hur mycket de diversifierar och hur riskbenägna de är, sedan jämföra resultatet med vad de olika teorierna inom aktiemarknaden säger, för att kunna dra slutsatser om investerarnas agerande. Studien använder sig av tvärsnittsdesign i form av en enkät för att samla in kvantitativ data. Herfindahl-Hirscher index (HHI) kommer att användas för att mäta koncentrationen (diversifieringen) i respektive respondents portfölj. För att kunna göra regressionsanalyser och leta efter samband behövs information om vem respondenten är och hur hans/hennes bakgrund ser ut. Det är 287 respondenter som har lämnat fullständiga svar på enkäten och är underlaget för studiens empiriska resultat. Studiens resultat jämförs med vad teorierna säger om diversifiering, riskbenägenhet och självsäkerhet (overconfidence). Slutsatserna som studien kommer fram till är att de investerare som är mest självsäkra är de som är aktieägare, har studerat ekonomi, arbetar på bank och de som hellre köper aktier själv, samt att män tenderar att vara mer självsäkra än kvinnor. Ju självsäkrare investeraren är desto mer riskbenägen är han/hon, de som arbetar på bank och/eller är aktieägare är de som är mest riskbenägna. De som diversifierar mest är yngre investerare och de som studerat ekonomi, är aktieägare och/eller föredrar att handla aktier själva, vilket betyder att ju mer relevant kunskap och erfarenhet investerare har om aktier desto mer diversifierar de. Det har inte gjorts någon slutsats om vilken teori som förklarar investerarnas agerande på bästa sätt, då resultatet har kopplats och förklarats av de flesta teorierna som omfattas av studien. / The stock market has a variety of theories that explains how people act and how they base their decisions. The chosen theories in the study are portfolio theory, the efficient market hypothesis (EMH), behavioral finance, behavioral portfolio theory and the adaptive market hypothesis (AMH). The study uses cross-sectional design in the form of a survey to collect quantitative data. The purpose of the paper is to examine how investors act, how much they diversify and how risk averse they are, and then the results are compared with the theories of this thesis. The conclusions drawn by the study are that investors who own stocks are the ones that are the most confident, have studied economics, work at banks and those who prefer to buy stocks themselves, and that men tend to be more confident than women. Those who diversify most are younger investors, those who study economics, are shareholders and/or prefer to trade shares themselves, which means that the more relevant knowledge and experience investors have about stocks, the more they diversify. It has not been decided which theory best explains how investors act; most theories are rather used to clarify the results.

Can momentum trading strategies beat Dutch or German stock market indices? If so, dothose strategies show significant positive net returns? For the period from March 2009 to March 2016this appears to be the case for only one out of the nine momentum trading strategies investigated withrespect to the Dutch stock market and for none of those same momentum trading strategiesinvestigated with respect to the German stock market. Furthermore, this research finds that the netmomentum returns seem to be winner- instead of loser-portfolio driven and that the longer the holdingperiod, the higher the net momentum returns realized.

Magister Commercii - MCom / The primary objectives of this research are to determine whether indices constructed from fundamental attributes of ALSI constituents outperform indices weighted by market capitalisations; and whether the performance of fundamental indices could be explained by size and value risk factors. The examination period is 1st January 2000 to 31st December 2009. The JSE ALSI constituent’s fundamental attributes; book values, dividends, earnings and sales together with their market values are extracted from DataStream International. Indices are subsequently constructed according to share’s market values and the four aforementioned fundamental attributes as well as a composite metric. The composite metric is a combination of all four fundamental attributes. Fundamental indices are found to be more mean-variance efficient than cap-weighted indices, whilst displaying moderate value bias and minor size bias. Fundamental indices exhibit lower risk-adjusted returns when rebalanced less frequently, except for sales-weighted indices which justly capture undervalued shares that mean revert throughout the year. Fundamental indexation is therefore, adjudged to be superior to cap-weighted methods and only relatively affected by value effect

Purpose The main purpose of this thesis was to evaluate the investment attractiveness of oil and gas stocks (registered on Nasdaq Stockholm) in face of the increasing campaigns for the adoption of clean energy. The findings can help in the formulation of relevant policy implications on the campaign for a cleaner environment Design/Methodology/Approach The authors assume positivism and objectivity as the philosophical aspects for the purpose of this study. Following these initial considerations, the nature of the study was adopted as quantitative. This follows a longitudinal design and a deductive approach, basing the paper on previous literature in the areas of environmental sustainability, market efficiency, financial news items and their effect on stock volatility in order to test own hypothesis.    Theory Following the methodological assumptions and the adoption of a deductive approach, relevant theory was selected to address the focus of previous research on which the research gaps and purpose are based. It also plays a role in introducing the reader to the relevant theories which will aid comprehension of further sections of this paper. Theories surrounding market efficiency, risk and return, the oil and gas industry and sustainability have all been mentioned.  Findings In order to fulfil the purpose of the study, the authors studied whether the volatility of oil and gas stocks are affected by clean energy related news. The empirical results suggest that the volatility of oil and gas stocks decline whenever news of clean energy is introduced, implying clean energy news cause lower volatility. To this end, oil and gas stocks are better off whenever clean energy/sustainability news are introduced into the market.  Analysis The empirical results seem to point to the fact that oil and gas firms may be benefiting from the investment they have made within the last two decades towards the issue of doing business in a more sustainable and socially responsible manner. It is therefore possible that investors get to reward them whenever news relating to sustainability and clean energy are announced. Conclusions  This thesis confirms the attractiveness of oil and gas stocks notwithstanding the increasing campaigns and initiatives aimed at promoting the adoption of clean energy.  Research limitations The research was limited in terms of setting since it only covered Sweden and therefore cannot answer questions regarding the overall attractiveness of oil and gas stocks across the globe.

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In 1981, Banz discovered evidence suggesting that small-cap firms outperform large-cap firms when considering risk-adjusted returns. Banz (1981), called this the “size effect” and raised concerns regarding the ability of current asset pricing models to set accurate prices for assets. This resulted in new models being developed, such as the Fama and French three-factor model which takes the size of a company into consideration (Fama & French, 1992). However, since the discovering of the size effect, several researchers have started to question its existence. (Asgharian & Hansson, 2008) Moreover, short after Banz findings, a study by Keim (1983) introduced results that complements the size effect. Keims study suggests that the size effect is present due to the fact that small-cap firms outperform large- cap firms during the month of January. This seasonal anomaly is called the “January effect” and could possibly be the reason for the existence of the size effect. The purpose of this study is to investigate if there is a size effect and/or a January effect present on the Swedish stock market (OMX) when using Enterprise Value as the measure for size. Enterprise Value has been chosen in order to consider the full capital structure of companies, hence, not solely the equity value. In order to answer these research questions, a quantitative study has been conducted on companies being listen on the OMX during the time period 2000-2019. The findings of the research are that there is no size effect present on the OMX. Furthermore, the research has found that there is a January effect present on the OMX. This paper suggests that the January effect might have been the reason for the presence of the size effect in history, but as of now, the size effect has diminished but the January effect still remains.

Active management funds are associated with higher transaction costs, which is something that has been acknowledged for a long time. The question is whether these costs can compensate with a higher return. This paper investigates how two active strategies, momentum and growth investing, have performed in relation to a passive index. To test this, we investigated the Frankfurt stock market during 2005-2020 on stocks from the automobile sector. By doing this, the purpose was investigated whether growth and momentum has had a higher risk-adjusted return than the benchmark index during the 15 years of observation. The result showed that both growth and momentum performed better than a passive index fund, despite its costly variables. However, the risk adjusted return was not significant higher. This study includes transaction costs in its calculation, which other studies ignore and focus on one industry with a consistent benchmark index for the same industry. By doing this, we believe that the test will be more accurate, and avoid potential industry effects on return and hopefully contribute with new thoughts on the subject.

As the world is gravitating toward an information economy, it has become more and more critical for an investor to understand the impact of data and information. One of the sources of data that can be converted into information are texts from microblogging platforms, such as Twitter. The user of such a microblogging account can filtrate opinion and information to millions of people. Depending on the account holder, the opinion or information originated from the designated account may lead to different societal impact. The microblogging scope of this investigation are politicians holding a Twitter account. This investigation will look into the relationship between political tweets' sentiment and market movement and the subsequent longevity of such an effect. The classified sentiments are positive or negative. The presence of artificial intelligence is vital for a data-driven investigation; in the context of this investigation, artificial intelligence will be used to classify the sentiment of the political tweet. The methods chose to assess the impact of a political tweet and market movement is event-study. The impact is expressed in either a positive or a negative cumulative abnormal return subsequent to the political tweet. The findings of the investigation indicate that on average, there is no statistical evidence that a political tweets' sentiment leads to an abnormal return. However, in specific cases, political tweet leads to abnormal return. Moreover, it has been determined that the longevity of the effect is rather short. This is an interdisciplinary approach that can be applied by individual and institutional investors and financial institutions.

Investors are constantly searching for new ways to obtain a higher return on the market. This study examines if the stock prices for the companies within the market index OMXS30 changes more than expected when an earnings announcement is published and if it is possible to benefit from it in order to obtain a higher return. The study investigates how well the traditional theories, such as the efficient market hypothesis and random walk, can explain the market today by performing two event studies that represent different investment strategies. Event study 1 examine how the stock price changes before earnings announcement. Event study 2 examine how the stock price changes if you own the stock when the earnings announcement is published and sells it afterwards. The results from the event studies show that the null hypothesis are rejected at a 5 percent significance level, where event study 1 had an abnormal return of 0.84 percent and event study 2 had an abnormal return of 5.46 percent. Based on the results of the study the conclusion is that it is possible to obtain an abnormal return using the two investment strategies. / Investerare letar ständigt efter nya sätt att erhålla en överavkastning. Denna studie kommer att undersöka om aktiepriset för bolagen inom indexet OMXS30 förändras mer än förväntat i samband med att kvartalsrapporten publiceras och om det går att dra nytta av detta för att erhålla en överavkastning. Studien testar hur väl de traditionella finansiella teorierna såsom den effektiva marknadshypotesen och random walk förklarar marknaden idag genom att genomföra två eventstudier som representerar två alternativa investeringsstrategier. Eventstudie 1 undersöker hur aktiepriset förändras inför en kvartalsrapport. Eventstudie 2 undersöker hur aktiepriset förändras när en aktie ägs vid publiceringen av kvartalsrapporten och säljs efteråt. Resultatet från eventstudierna visade att båda nollhypoteserna kan förkastas på 5 procents signifikansnivå, där eventstudie 1 visade en abnormal avkastning på 0,84 procent och eventstudie 2 visade en abnormal avkastning på 5,46 procent. Utifrån studiens resultat dras slutsatsen att det går att erhålla en abnormal avkastning vid de båda alternativa investeringsstrategierna.

A high return is a driving factor for most investors. The ways to reach success are many and different investment strategies on how to earn high returns have been discussed for decades. Value stocks (low P/E ratios) and growth stocks (high P/E ratios) are two strategies among the investment area with different and contrary results on which strategy can give the highest possible return. However, studies of the P/E effect have shown different results the last years compared to previous findings of a value premium for low P/E stocks, with trends of a higher return for growth stocks compared to value stocks. This led us to the research question “Does a portfolio of growth stocks present a higher return than a portfolio with value stocks on the Swedish and Norwegian stock markets?”. The problem that the study aims to answer is therefore if a portfolio of growth stocks provides a higher return than a portfolio of value stocks between the years 2001-2021. The long timespan will give us the opportunity to evaluate the stock markets during both booms and busts. Our study is made on historical data on the Swedish and the Norwegian stock markets since we found a lack of previous research in these countries within the research area. To fulfil the purpose of the study and to answer the research question, a quantitative method is used with historical data provided from Eikon (Thomson Reuters DataStream) where firms are sorted on the P/E ratios and after that growth and value portfolios are created. We will present both the actual return as well as a risk adjusted return for the stocks. The risk adjusted returns are conducted by using the financial measurements Sharpe ratio and Jensen’s alpha. The result of the study shows that on a 5 % significance level, growth stocks presented a higher actual return than value stocks for both Sweden and Norway. The same evidence was found for the returns for growth stocks compared to market index. Though, when testing the risk adjusted returns, the null hypothesis could not be rejected, which implies that a statistical difference between the portfolios could not be found.