The main objective of this bachelor thesis was to gain awareness of accuracy and precision in total station measurements. Experiments were designed, executed and analyzed.   The approach to the subject was to examine measurements made with various prism set-ups. Prisms are supposed to be directed to the total station with the front face in the line of sight. In the experiment the prisms were directed in various angles in order to measure in non-perfect measuring arrangement and the behavior of the precision and accuracy were noted.   The mean values and standard uncertainties were calculated from the material as well as RMS Error in the cases where reference values could be used as true values. The reference values for comparison were available due to the possibility to use a test field – a network of concrete pillars with well-defined coordinates.   To see whether the precision (the standard uncertainty) changed between a measurement sample made with correctly positioned prisms and a measurement sample towards the angled prisms, a statistical test method was used. (The test method is recommended in the international standard ISO 17123-1; Optics and optical instruments, Field procedures for testing geodetic and surveying instruments, Part 1: Theory).   The results from the experiments showed that there were larger standard uncertainties in the slope distance measurements towards extreme angled prisms than to correctly directed prisms. Surprisingly it was also larger standard uncertainty in vertical angle measurements toward correctly directed prisms than slightly angled prisms. The mean values of the horizontal angle measurement drifted sideways in the measurements made towards one extreme angle to the opposite extreme so that a total shift of around one centimeter was detected at short distances as well as up to 100 m distance.    When aiming in between the separate prisms of 360-degree targets the standard uncertainty were larger in horizontal angle measurements at a few occasions where it seemed like the autolock function had chosen two different prisms to lock on to, at separate occasions. The standard uncertainties were also larger in all vertical angle measurements when aiming in between the prisms.   The results showed clearly that even when the standard uncertainties of the measurements were of equal size, the mean values – when measuring in the different test positions – could vary substantially. / Huvudsyftet med detta kandidatarbete var att öka medvetenheten angående noggrannhet och precision i mätningar utförda av en totalstation. Ett antal experiment planerades, genomfördes och analyserades.   De områden som undersöktes i projektet var hur mätningarna påverkades av olika sätt att vinkla prismor mot totalstationen. Det rekommenderas att rikta ett prismas framsida mot totalstationens siktlinje. I experimentet vinklades prismorna i olika lägen för att mätningar skulle utföras i icke-perfekta förhållanden.   Medelvärden och standardosäkerheter beräknades ur mätdatan samt RMSE i de fall där det fanns referensvärden att jämföra med. Dessa referensvärden var tillgängliga tack vare möjligheten att få utnyttja ett testfält med betongpelare med kända koordinater.   För att utröna om precisionen (standardosäkerheten) ändrades mellan mätningar på korrekt inriktade prismor och de mätningar som gjordes mot vinklade prismor, utfördes ett statistiskt test. (Testmetoden rekommenderas i den internationella standarden ISO 17123-1, Optics and optical instruments - Field procedures for testing geodetic and surveying instruments - Part 1: Theory).   Resultaten av undersökningarna visade att där var större standardosäkerheter i mätningar av den lutande längden när prismorna var extremt vinklade än när de var korrekt orienterade. Standardosäkerheten var något överraskande också större med korrekt riktade prismor i vertikalvinkel-mätningarna med autolockfunktionen än om prismorna var något utåtvinklade. Medelvärdena på horisontalvinklarna drev sidleds i mätningar gjorda i en extrem vinkelposition till den motsatta extremen så att en total förflyttning på runt en centimeter konstaterades på korta avstånd likväl som på avstånd upp till 100 m.   Vid inriktning av siktet mot områdena mellan de separata prismorna i 360-gradsmålen så ökade standardosäkerheten i horisontalvinkel vid ett par positioner då det verkade som att autolockfunktionen valde båda prismorna på var sida, vid olika tillfällen. Standardosäkerheten var också större vid samtliga vertikalvinkelmätningar mot områdena mellan prismorna.   Resultaten visade tydligt att även om standardosäkerheterna i mätningarna var i samma storleks-ordning så kunde medelvärdena av mätstorheten mellan de olika testpositionerna variera substantiellt.

Högskolan i Gävle har en mängd av utbildningar som har anknytning till geodetisk mätning. Sedan tidigare finns det en uppsättning lägesbestämda punkter i Högskoleområdet som används inom dessa utbildningar där mätning förekommer. Punkterna har etablerats i olika omgångar, oberoende av varandra, och därför kan de inte kallas för ett stomnät. Syftet med detta examensarbete är att etablera ett stomnät i plan vid Högskolan i Gävle i referenssystemet SWEREF 99 16 30. Stomnätet bör hålla en hög kvalitet för att vara användbart inom all geodetisk mätning som Högskolan ägnar sig åt. Etableringen av stomnätet har delats upp i två delar. Den första delen består av planering, genomförande och efterberäkning av statiska GNSS-mätningar och den andra delen består av planering, genomförande och efterberäkning av terrestra mätningar (mätning med totalstation). Etablering av stomnät utförs ofta i två steg där mätning med Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) används för att lägesbestämma ett antal utgångspunkter som ska omsluta resten av stomnätet. Statisk GNSS-mätning utfördes med Trimble R12i på 9 stabila markeringar runt Högskolan under tre mätsessioner. Baslinjeberäkning och nätutjämning utfördes i 4 olika scenarier för att se hur beräkningen av koordinater påverkades av olika val av frekvens och användning av fasta kontrollpunkter (SWEPOS referensstationer).  För planering av terrester mätning och för att uppnå antalet rekommenderade sikter mellan punkter i stomnätet utfördes en rekognosering av Högskoleområdet, i kombination med simulering i datorprogrammet SBG Geo. Tillfälliga punkter markerades ut för att förbättra stomnätets geometri och uppnå kraven i HMK – Stommätning (2021) för stomnätets kontrollerbarhet. Stommätningen utfördes med satsmätning med totalstationen Trimble S5 1’. I efterberäkningen undersöktes vilken anslutningsmetod som var mest lämplig med avseende på skattade standardosäkerheter för utgångspunkter och nypunkter. Resultatet blev ett stomnät med totalt 36 markerade punkter. Viktsenhetens standardosäkerhet för stomnätet blev 0,2055 och kontrollerbarheten 0,6 efter en unitär transformation, och en skattad standardosäkerhet för nypunkter på millimeternivå. Kvadratisk medelavvikelse mellan utgångspunkter inmätta med GNSS-teknik och nypunkter inmätta med terrester teknik blev 4,39 mm. / The University of Gävle has a range of courses related to geodetic surveying. There is already a set of points with coordinates in the university area, which are used in courses where geodetic surveying occurs. The points have been established at different times, independently of each other, and therefore cannot be called a geodetic control network. The purpose of this thesis is to establish a control network in 2D at the University of Gävle, in the reference system SWEREF 99 16 30. The control network should be of high quality to be useful in all geodetic surveying that the university engages in. The establishment of the control network has been divided into two parts, the first part consists of planning, implementation and post-processing of static GNSS measurements, and the second part consists of planning, implementation and post-processing of terrestrial measurements. The establishment of a geodetic control network is often carried out in two steps where measurement with Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is used to determine the position of a number of starting points that will surround the rest of the control network. Static GNSS measurements was performed with Trimble R12i on 9 stable markings around the university during three sessions. Baseline calculation and network adjustment were performed in 4 different scenarios to see how the calculation of coordinates was affected by different choices of frequency and use of fixed control points (SWEPOS reference stations). For planning of the terrestrial measurements, and to achieve the recommended number of sights between points in the control network, a simulation in the computer program SBG Geo. Temporary points were marked out to improve the geometry of the control network and meet the requirements in HMK – Stommätning (2021) for the controllability of the control network. The terrestrial measurements were carried out by surveying with total station Trimble S5 1’. In post-processing, the alternatives for connecting the control network to SWEREF 99 16 30 was investigated with regard to estimated standard uncertainties for starting points and new points. The result is a geodetic control network with a total of 36 marked points. The standard error of unit weight for the control network resulted in 0.21 after a unitary transformation, and the estimated standard uncertainty for new points was at the millimeter level. The average deviation between starting points measured with static GNSS and new points measured with terrestrial technology was about 4 mm.

Os levantamentos topográficos para implantação de vias urbanas são usualmente realizados utilizando instrumentos e processos clássicos da topografia. A presença de obstáculos (casas, prédios) ao longo do percurso, reduz a produtividade do trabalho além de contribuir para a imprecisão dos resultados. Este trabalho analisa a metodologia de utilização de receptores do sistema GPS (Global Positioning System) para o georeferenciamento, implantação de bases de apoio e complementação ao levantamento convencional com Estação Total. No desenvolvimento do projeto de uma via, é de esperar que desvios centimétricos na determinação das coordenadas dos pontos das bases de referência pouco afetam os resultados finais. Procurando verificar a contribuição destes desvios, foram realizados vários levantamentos convencionais e com o GPS ao longo do eixo de uma via projetada na cidade de São Carlos. No final do trabalho são analisados aspectos referentes a execução destes levantamentos, concluindo sobre as vantagens e desvantagens de cada método e da integração GPS e Estação Total. / The surveying for development of urban roads are usually accomplished by using instruments and processes of classic Topography. The presence of obstacles (houses, buildings) along the course it reduces the productivity of the work besides contributing for the imprecision of the results. This work analyzes the methodology of use of receivers of the GPS (Global Positioning System) for georeferring, implant of support bases and complementation to the surveying with Total Station. In the development of the project of a road, it is expected that centimetric deviations in the determination of the points coordinates of the reference bases cause small effects in the final results. Trying to verify the contribution of these deviations, several surveys were accomplished with the Total Station and GPS along the axis of a road projected in the city of São Carlos. In the end of the work several aspects are analyzed about the execution of these surveys, concluding on the advantages and disadvantages of each method and of the integration GPS and Total Station.

Os levantamentos topográficos para implantação de vias urbanas são usualmente realizados utilizando instrumentos e processos clássicos da topografia. A presença de obstáculos (casas, prédios) ao longo do percurso, reduz a produtividade do trabalho além de contribuir para a imprecisão dos resultados. Este trabalho analisa a metodologia de utilização de receptores do sistema GPS (Global Positioning System) para o georeferenciamento, implantação de bases de apoio e complementação ao levantamento convencional com Estação Total. No desenvolvimento do projeto de uma via, é de esperar que desvios centimétricos na determinação das coordenadas dos pontos das bases de referência pouco afetam os resultados finais. Procurando verificar a contribuição destes desvios, foram realizados vários levantamentos convencionais e com o GPS ao longo do eixo de uma via projetada na cidade de São Carlos. No final do trabalho são analisados aspectos referentes a execução destes levantamentos, concluindo sobre as vantagens e desvantagens de cada método e da integração GPS e Estação Total. / The surveying for development of urban roads are usually accomplished by using instruments and processes of classic Topography. The presence of obstacles (houses, buildings) along the course it reduces the productivity of the work besides contributing for the imprecision of the results. This work analyzes the methodology of use of receivers of the GPS (Global Positioning System) for georeferring, implant of support bases and complementation to the surveying with Total Station. In the development of the project of a road, it is expected that centimetric deviations in the determination of the points coordinates of the reference bases cause small effects in the final results. Trying to verify the contribution of these deviations, several surveys were accomplished with the Total Station and GPS along the axis of a road projected in the city of São Carlos. In the end of the work several aspects are analyzed about the execution of these surveys, concluding on the advantages and disadvantages of each method and of the integration GPS and Total Station.

Cadastral reinstatement methods within Queensland involve the use of modern digital surveying techniques in combination with traditional non-digital methods of recording and reporting information. This leads to the need to manually enter and re-enter data into a digital format at different stages of a survey. The requirement to lodge survey information with government organisations in a non-digital survey plan format also forces a break in digital data flow throughout the cadastral surveying system, which can only be updated by changes in the lodgement regulations. The private cadastral organisations are predominantly responsible for carrying out the cadastral surveys and the government agencies are primarily responsible for the examination, verification and administration of the cadastral data. These organisations will have no communication link for digital cadastral data until the introduction of digital data lodgement. The digital system within the private cadastral surveying organisations can therefore be considered to be an independent system with consideration needed to be given to the future introduction of a digital lodgement system at some undefined time in the future. Cadastral surveyors hold large amounts of digital information that is suitable for digital reinstatement systems. This information, if appropriately archived and distributed, has the capacity to meet the needs of reinstatement systems including as an alternative source of digital information that will eventually be obtained from digital lodgement systems. The existing technology and the private organisation structures are capable of supporting continuous digital data flow and automated systems. This research proposes a process of development for private cadastral organisations to advance from traditional systems to continuous digital data flow and automated processes within their cadastral reinstatement systems. The development process is linked to existing legislation and technology taking into consideration likely future directions. The current legislative and technological environments within Queensland allow for development towards automated digital systems that will enhance most current cadastral reinstatement systems.

A method for precisely synchronizing an external serial data stream to the pulse-per-second (PPS) output signal from a global navigation satellite-based system (GNSS) receiver was investigated. A signal timing device was designed that used a digital signal processor (DSP) with serial inputs and input captures to generate time stamps for asynchronous serial data based on an 58593.75 Hz internal timer. All temporal measurements were made directly in hardware to eliminate software latency. The resolution of the system was 17.1 µs, which translated to less than one millimeter of horizontal position error at travel speeds typical of most agricultural operations. The dynamic error of a TTS was determined using a rotary test fixture. Tests were performed at angular velocities ranging from 0 to 3.72 rad/s and a radius of 0.635 m. Average latency from the TTS was shown to be consistently near 0.252 s for all angular velocities and less variable when using a reflector based machine target versus a prism target. Sight distance from the target to the TTS was shown to have very little effect on accuracy between 4 and 30 m. The TTS was determined to be a limited as a position reference for dynamic GNSS and vehicle auto-guidance testing based on angular velocity. The dynamic error of a GNSS receiver was determined using the rotary test fixture and modeled as discrete probability density functions for varying angular velocities and filter levels. GNSS position and fixture data were recorded for angular velocities of 0.824, 1.423, 2.018, 2.618, and 3.222 rad/s at a 1 m radius. Filter levels were adjusted to four available settings including; no filter, normal filter, high filter, and max filter. Each data set contained 4 hours of continuous operation and was replicated three times. Results showed that higher angular velocities increased the variability of the distribution of error while not having a significant effect on average error. The distribution of error tended to change from normal distributions at lower angular velocities to uniform distributions at higher angular velocities. Internal filtering was shown to consistently increase dynamic error for all angular velocities.

The central theme of my dissertation is the introduction to the creation of a digital terrain model in the area of recultivation of Chabarovice former softcoal strip mine near Usti nad Labem, especially it deals with land slide area Rabenov. This area is monitored using geodetic and geotechnical methods since 2003 to declare the area to be stable which would allow its full planned utilization. This thesis is a part of the terrestrial and satellite measurements for staged, performed within the project MSM. As input data were used points located by Topcon total station TCN 2006. The aim of my dissertation is to create a digital terrain model of a large scale using the program DMT Atlas.

Práca sa zaoberá objavujúcim sa nekonvenčným využitím moderných teodolitov, tiež známych ako Robotické Totálne Stanice (RTS), ako sledovací a navádzací systém, určením presnej pozície dynamicky sa pohybujúceho objektu. To sa týka najmä situácií, kde nie je možné využiť konvenčné polohovacie systémy akým je napríklad GNSS. Kinematicky určená poloha objektu kontinuálne sledujúcou RTS môže byť následne v reálnom čase využitá pre autonómnu navigáciu malých bezpilotných leteckých prostriedkov (UAV) poskytnutím referenčného súradnicového systému a okamžitej polohy v ňom. Podstatná časť práce je venovaná návrhu a realizácii vhodných experimentov, ktoré overia spoľahlivosť určovania presnej polohy objektu v presnom časovom okamžiku. Boli preverené stanice série S7 a S9 od spoločnosti Trimble a stanica S9 HP, ktorá disponuje frekvenciou kontinuálneho merania až do 10 Hz bola napokon využitá pre experimenty. Lokálny čas ovládacieho panelu TSC7, ktorý zabezpečuje komunikáciu so stanicou bol pomocou protokolu PTP synchronizovaný s lokálnym časom mini-počítača Raspberry Pi, ktorý následne poskytoval referenčné meranie skutočnej polohy objektu v čase. V závere sú zhrnuté výsledky experimentov.

The subject of thesis was creation of methodic for building information modeling methods specified. The buildings were surveyed at first or projects drawing were provided. Processing of survey data and building information modeling was done in software Revit 2014 with program extensions. Subsequently chosen methods of creation were described and they were compared with each other. The result can use for selection the most appropriate method on the basis function and targeted funds.

This study aims at increasing the amount of data available on recent past Swedish glacier front variations, at improving the knowledge on the present behavior of these glaciers, and at contributing to the defnition of the guideline for future of glacier front observations in Sweden. To do so, the study proposes Sentinel-2 based yearly front variation measurements for 22 Swedish glaciers between 2015 and 2022, calculated based on the multicentreline approach of the MaQiT tool. It also assesses the uncertainty of Sentinel-2 based mapping by comparing it to 0.48 m spatial resolution aerial imagery based mapping and to field based mapping conducted on four northern Sweden glaciers during the end of the summer 2022: Kaskasatj SE, Kebnepakteglaciären, Mårmaglaciären, and Storglaciären. The fieldwork included handheld GNSS, UAV photogrammetry, and total station survey in order to compare the three methods in the mapping of glacier fronts. This study also compares the measured glaciers front variations to climatic factors and glaciers boundary conditions. The resulting glacier front variations in Sweden between 2015 and 2022, averaged over all glaciers studied, is −10.28 m yr−1. Small glaciers retreated on average 0.51 % of their length per year, while large glaciers retreated on average 0.35 % per year. This study highlights the importance of recording yearly front positions of a large amount of glaciers, and therefore encourages for the future the use of satellite imagery to observe all Swedish glaciers fronts on a yearly basis. It also supports the conduction of regular UAV photogrammetry surveys to provide high resolution mapping of a sample of glacier fronts chosen for their vicinity with the Tarfala Research Station, the Swedish field centre for glaciological and alpine research.