The offer of vacation packages is a marketing tool called bundling, selling at least two separate products at one single price (Guiltinan, 1987). Sellers adopt bundling strategies in order to sell more at lower costs, to contract consumer surplus, and to create value for consumers. Consumers purchase a package based on the trade-off between the perceived benefits and costs involved in purchasing the package compared to assembling different products/service. In other words, the perceived value of the package is the reason for consumers to purchase a package or not. The study serves two purposes. One is to examine the dimensionality of perceived value as a construct, in the pre-purchase stage. The other is to investigate the relationships between bundling strategies and perceived value, and perceived value and purchase intention of a vacation package. Bundling strategies taken by sellers include how many items to put in a package and what price discount for the package compared to the sum of all separate products. The findings of the study show that perceived value in service setting is composed of perceived acquisition value and perceived functional value, instead of perceived acquisition value and perceived transaction value proposed by scholars such as Thaler (1985) and Grewal et al. (1998). This is one of the theoretical contributions by the study. Another contribution of the study is the exploratory examination of the interaction effect between pricing strategies and product strategies for a bundle. The study provides evidence that bundles without a discount are perceived as having very low value and consumers expect a discount, large or small, from buying a bundle. And the larger the number of products in a package, the larger the discount size consumers expect to get. / Ph. D.

The purpose of this master’s thesis is to examine and analyse how a transfer pricing adjustment is made and how related parties should handle price adjustments from a customs perspective in Sweden. The examination includes describing the valuation methods available for transfer pricing and customs valuation with regards to related parties. In addition, the differences in connection to the valuation are described and analysed. Goods imported to Sweden must be cleared through customs: the importer presents a customs declaration to the Swedish Customs and pays customs duty. The customs duty is calculated using a customs value and customs valuation is the system that enables the importer to establish correct customs values on imported goods. Transfer pricing is the determination of prices on transactions taken place between companies belonging to the same group and has a direct effect on the income tax payable. There are six customs valuation methods that are hierarchically applied and six transfer pricing methods that are applied somewhat differently. There are similarities between the methods and most of the customs valuation methods have a corresponding transfer pricing method, or vice versa. Even if there are similarities, many factors make reconciliation of the methods difficult. Such factors are the different time for assessing the value and that the customs valuation methods are applied in a strictly hierarchical way with no possibility to choose the most suitable method. Customs duties and transfer pricing both share the same valuation concept, although interpreted differently, being that the value shall be based on the price that the parties would arrive at under open market conditions. However, relevant values on the same transaction differ significantly due to trying to be in accordance with respective rules. The differences in expectations and the conflicting interests on the outcome of the valuation lead to problems in the tax field. As a conclusion, customs valuation and transfer pricing can undeniably be described as “the two opposing and necessary sides of the same ‘coin’, whose respective values unavoidably affect the whole balance of a system of closely connected valuation”. In order for related parties to use the transaction value method, which is the superior customs valuation method, the price must not have been influenced due to their relationship. If one of two tests prescribed by law can prove that the relationship has not influenced the price, the related parties can use the transaction value method to establish the customs value. If the transaction value, for some reason cannot be used, the importer has to address other options on to how to establish the customs value. The conclusion of this master’s thesis is that related parties should include a price review clause in their contract or pricing policy. The company should notify the Swedish Customs about the provisional price and make an incomplete customs declaration. When information enabling the calculation of the customs value is available, the importer should file a complementary declaration. As an alternative, the importer should declare an open claim to the Swedish Customs arguing that the transaction value cannot be applied and, as a consequence thereof, explain in the customs value declaration why the applied customs value is correct. This thesis provides three recommendations concerning how to deal with the complications of customs valuation and transfer pricing. The first recommendation is that rules and recommendations surrounding transfer pricing and customs valuation should, to the extent possible, be harmonised. The second recommendation is that co-operation between the Swedish Tax Agency and the Swedish Customs must improve, for example through advance pricing arrangements for both transfer pricing and customs purposes, documentation requirements, and joint audits. The third recommendation is that related parties should take the same care and documentation approach for customs purposes as it does for transfer pricing. Importing companies should make a price review clause in their contract before the importation and present an incomplete customs declaration. This way, in case of adjustments, the related party is able to uphold an arm’s length standard on the price and has the possibility to use the preferred transaction value for customs purposes, if that is desirable.

<p>The purpose of this master’s thesis is to examine and analyse how a transfer pricing adjustment is made and how related parties should handle price adjustments from a customs perspective in Sweden. The examination includes describing the valuation methods available for transfer pricing and customs valuation with regards to related parties. In addition, the differences in connection to the valuation are described and analysed.</p><p>Goods imported to Sweden must be cleared through customs: the importer presents a customs declaration to the Swedish Customs and pays customs duty. The customs duty is calculated using a customs value and customs valuation is the system that enables the importer to establish correct customs values on imported goods. Transfer pricing is the determination of prices on transactions taken place between companies belonging to the same group and has a direct effect on the income tax payable. There are six customs valuation methods that are hierarchically applied and six transfer pricing methods that are applied somewhat differently. There are similarities between the methods and most of the customs valuation methods have a corresponding transfer pricing method, or vice versa. Even if there are similarities, many factors make reconciliation of the methods difficult. Such factors are the different time for assessing the value and that the customs valuation methods are applied in a strictly hierarchical way with no possibility to choose the most suitable method.</p><p>Customs duties and transfer pricing both share the same valuation concept, although interpreted differently, being that the value shall be based on the price that the parties would arrive at under open market conditions. However, relevant values on the same transaction differ significantly due to trying to be in accordance with respective rules. The differences in expectations and the conflicting interests on the outcome of the valuation lead to problems in the tax field. As a conclusion, customs valuation and transfer pricing can undeniably be described as “the two opposing and necessary sides of the same ‘coin’, whose respective values unavoidably affect the whole balance of a system of closely connected valuation”.</p><p>In order for related parties to use the transaction value method, which is the superior customs valuation method, the price must not have been influenced due to their relationship. If one of two tests prescribed by law can prove that the relationship has not influenced the price, the related parties can use the transaction value method to establish the customs value. If the transaction value, for some reason cannot be used, the importer has to address other options on to how to establish the customs value.</p><p>The conclusion of this master’s thesis is that related parties should include a price review clause in their contract or pricing policy. The company should notify the Swedish Customs about the provisional price and make an incomplete customs declaration. When information enabling the calculation of the customs value is available, the importer should file a complementary declaration. As an alternative, the importer should declare an open claim to the Swedish Customs arguing that the transaction value cannot be applied and, as a consequence thereof, explain in the customs value declaration why the applied customs value is correct.</p><p>This thesis provides three recommendations concerning how to deal with the complications of customs valuation and transfer pricing. The first recommendation is that rules and recommendations surrounding transfer pricing and customs valuation should, to the extent possible, be harmonised. The second recommendation is that co-operation between the Swedish Tax Agency and the Swedish Customs must improve, for example through advance pricing arrangements for both transfer pricing and customs purposes, documentation requirements, and joint audits. The third recommendation is that related parties should take the same care and documentation approach for customs purposes as it does for transfer pricing. Importing companies should make a price review clause in their contract before the importation and present an incomplete customs declaration. This way, in case of adjustments, the related party is able to uphold an arm’s length standard on the price and has the possibility to use the preferred transaction value for customs purposes, if that is desirable.</p>

本文主要探討「最低購買金額門檻」促銷，例如、「滿一千送一百」、「滿三千送三百」等對於消費者購物行為之影響。分為兩大研究主題：研究主題一旨在探討「最低購買金額門檻」促銷對購物決策與認知之影響，透過實地賣場購物實驗，瞭解該促銷能否提高購買金額、令消費者傾向去計算購買商品總價格，及帶來較高之知覺交易效用。 研究主題二則根據研究一中發現「最低購買金額門檻」促銷下消費者會傾向於心中計算總價格之結果，進一步探究該促銷是否會影響消費者對價格的認知，包括如價格記憶的正確性、及內部參考價格的影響，透過型錄購物及電腦網頁模擬購物之實驗來驗證。 根據上述兩大研究主題，本文中進行了三個實驗，皆同樣以提供10%折扣幅度，但未設定購買金額門檻的「九折優惠」促銷來做為控制組：研究一實驗在實際書店賣場舉行，以賣場門口發放三種促銷 (滿一千送一百、滿五百送五十、及九折優惠)折扣券方式，購物結束後再透過購物發票、賣場銷售資料及問卷衡量，瞭解消費者當日購物行為結果。 研究二則透過實驗室實驗法，以商品型錄模擬購物來瞭解消費者在「滿千送百」與「九折優惠」促銷下回憶商品價格正確性之差異；研究三實驗以電腦網頁模擬百貨公司購物，先讓受測者在兩種促銷 (滿三千送三百、九折優惠)情境下購買商品，觀察他們購物接近促銷金額門檻時，購買最後一件商品的選擇結果，之後再請受測者賣回所購買商品，並藉由訂價過程瞭解其內部參考價格水準。 本研究的主要發現，對於消費者購物行為影響方面：(1)「最低購買金額門檻」促銷確實能夠提高消費者購買的金額，符合定錨調整理論 (Tversky and Kahneman, 1974)推論之結果；(2)兩種促銷下的知覺交易效用結果則無法證實，推測由於實驗中「滿千送百」贈送的現金是緊接著消費決策後發生，延遲得到小額利得的感受不夠明顯，使得銀線原則 (Thaler, 1985)無法被驗證。 對於商品價格認知影響方面：(1) 當購買金額超過促銷門檻時，「最低購買金額門檻」促銷下的內部參考價格高於「直接折扣」促銷者；(2)在該促銷下消費者在心中計算總價格的比例明顯高於「直接折扣」促銷；(3)在該促銷下消費者因為必須計算總價格，使得價格回憶的正確性提高；(4)透過內部參考價格間接推估「最低購買金額門檻」促銷在購買金額超過促銷門檻時，有較高之交易效用。 / The present research explores the effects of “the minimum purchase requirement promotions” on consumers’ purchasing behavior. Study 1 examined consumers’ purchasing decisions in a field experiment with three types of promotional coupons randomly handed to customers: Purchase over $1000 and get a $100 cash reward, purchase over $500 and get a $50 cash reward, or 10% off price discount. Consumers’ invoices from the bookstore’s database were recorded, and questionnaires were used to measure transaction value and how these promotions influenced consumers’ shopping spending, and tendency to calculate total expense. Study 1’s findings show that consumers tend to calculate total expense under “the minimum purchase requirement promotion”. Study 2 and Study3 explored how this promotional type influences on consumers’ price cognition, including price recall accuracy and internal reference price. In Study 2, laboratory experiment was used: (a) purchase over $1000 and get a $100 cash reward and (b) 10% off price discount through manipulated catalog shopping. Study 3 was a computer-manipulated shopping experiment, with participants purchasing product in the shopping stage of experiment and selling the products in a later auction to ascertain their internal reference price under two different promotional frames (purchase over $3000 and get a $300 cash reward, and a 10% off price discount). Major findings about consumers’ purchasing decisions were: (a) as the inference of anchoring and adjusting heuristic theory (Tversky and Kahneman, 1974), consumers increase their spending; (b) the “requirement promotion” improvement of consumers’ transaction value cannot be proved as the inference of silver linings principle (Thaler, 1985) because the time delay was not obvious in the experiment. The results of the influence on price cognition were: (a) “the minimum purchase requirement promotion” had a higher internal reference price than regular price discount with total expense over the promotional threshold; (b) this promotion will increase consumers’ tendency to calculate total expense; (c) consumers have higher price recall accuracy in this requirement promotion; and (d) the internal reference price was used to infer that this promotion might have a higher transaction value with total expense over the promotional threshold.

This study utilized hedonic pricing models and regression analysis to evaluate if, and to whatextent distance to certain logistics nodes impact the transactional value of warehouses andlogistics properties. The study is conducted in Sweden, using data collected from transactionsthat have been conducted in the three largest cities in Sweden between the years 2016 - 2022.The logistical nodes that are tested within the study are the biggest seaports, airports andhighways in the big city regions. Furthermore, the distances to the central business districts ineach respective city are included in the analysis as well. The distances are collected bymeasuring the shortest road travel routes using Google Maps. Aside from the aforementionedlocational attributes that were tested, physical variables and dummy variables were includedin the model to investigate their effect on the transaction value of the logistics properties.Furthermore, these were included to prove the robustness of the proposed models. The results from the study indicate that all the logistical nodes tested are significant for thevalue of the industrial properties. Proximity to seaport, central business district and highwayshave a negative gradient, indicating a higher value of the logistics properties if in proximityto these nodes. While the distance to the airport is significant for the value of the logisticsproperties, the proximity to the airport does not induce a higher transaction value. The studyconcluded that the distance to seaport had an effect of -0,50%, CBD -0,83%, Highway-0,62% and Airport 0,47% per kilometer of change. This study aims to contribute to theexpanding literature on the topic of optimal warehouse location and to inform propertyowners of what attributes to consider when constructing logistic properties. / Denna studie använder hedoniska prismodeller och regressionsanalys för att utvärdera om,och i vilken utsträckning avstånd till logistiknoderna hamn, flygplats och motorväg påverkartransaktionsvärdet för lager och logistikfastigheter. Studien genomfördes i Sverige med hjälpav data insamlad från transaktioner som har genomförts i de tre största städerna i Sverigemellan åren 2016 - 2022. Transaktionsdatan samlades in genom Datscha. Vidare utreds ävenhuruvida avstånd till central business districts har en inverkan på transaktionspriset.Avstånden mäts genom att mäta de kortaste transportsträckorna mellan fastighet och nod.Avstånden i fråga har samlats in med hjälp av Google Maps. Resultaten från studien tyder påatt alla logistiknoder som testats har betydelse för fastighetens värde. Närhet till hamn, CBDoch motorvägar har en negativ koefficient, vilket indikerar ett högre transaktionsvärde påfastigheten i de fall de är belägna i närheten dessa noder. Avståndet till flygplatsen har ocksåbetydelse för värdet på fastigheterna. Denna variabel har dock en positiv koefficient, vilketindikerar att närhet till denna logistiknod har en negativ inverkan på transaktionspriset.Slutsatsen från analysen indikerar att avståndet till hamn hade en effekt på -0,50%, CBD-0,83%, motorväg -0,62% och flygplats 0,47% per kilometer av förändring. Denna studiesyftar till att bidra till den växande litteraturen om ämnet optimal lagerlokalisering och attinformera fastighetsägare om vilka attribut som ska beaktas när de bygger logistikfastigheter.